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SCIENTIFIC LIBRARY

UNITED STATES PATENT OFFICE

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Cassier's Magazine

An Engineering Monthly

Volume XXXVIII
May-October, 1910

The Gassier Magazine Company
New York

■ i

TA
i

;6 34

BY THE CASSIER MAGAZINE CO.,

New York.

*.. «

INDEX TO VOLUME XXXVIII.

PAGE

Accidents, Mining, T. Good, .... 368

Achievements in Aviation, Recent, 258

Action, Gyroscopic Q4

Administration of Government, 187

Aeroplanes, Recent Progress in Motors for, . . . W. F. Bradley, ... 45

Illustrated.

Air, Mechanical Purification of, C. L. Browne, . . . 564

Illustrated.

Air-Pump Design, 93

Alternators, Synchronizing, S. G. Winn, .... 153

Illustrated.

Appliances in Cotton Mills, Protective, . . . . H. M. Crawford, . . . 49°

Illustrated.

Art of Laying Out Cities, The, F. Boettge, .... 483

Illustrated.

Aviation, Recent Achievements in, 283

Balancing of Reciprocating Engines, R. J. Grimshaw, . . . 348

Illustrated.

Barnaby, Chas. W. : Methods of Laying Out Cities, 400

Battleships, The Fighting Power of, Archibald S. Hurd, . . 8

Illustrated.

Betterment, Industrial, H. F. J. Porter, ... 303

Biographical Sketches:

McFarland, Walter M., 95

Collins, A. Frederick, . > 191

Langley, Samuel Pierpont, 288

Zeppelin, Count Ferdinand von, 383

Woolson, Ira H., 480

Kapp, Dr. Gisbert, 575

Boats, The Propulsion of Cargo, . . . ... . R. M. Neilson, . . . 215,373

Illustrated.

Bock, Fr. : The New Harbor Works at Constanza, 243

The Steam Turbine in the German Navy, . 333

Boettge, F. : The Art of Laying Out Cities 483

Boiler, An Old-Time, . . . ' 573

Boiler Feed Water, - 189

Bradley, W. F. : Recent Progress in Aeroplanes 45

Brattleboro Hydro-Electric Plant, The, .... Lauriston Fredericks, . . 39
Illustrated.

Brazil, The Railways of, I., Lionel Wiener, ... 83

Brazil, The Railways of, II . . Lionel Wiener, ... 99

Brazil, The Railways of, III., Lionel Wiener, . . . 195

Brazil, The Railways of, IV., Lionel Wiener, . . . 339

Brazil, The Railways of, V., Lionel Wiener, . . . 456

Brazil, The Railways of, VI., Lionel Wiener, . . . 553

Illustrated.

Browne, C. L.: Mechanical Purification of Air, 564

Brussels Exposition, The Fire at the, 478

Brussels International Exposition, The, . . . . J. O. Newman, . . . 387
Illustrated.

Canals to Railway Transport, Relation of, . . , , S, Whettal, .... 79

INDEX

es,

Cargo Boats, The Propulsion of, .

Illustrated.
Car Wheel Turning, Modern,

Illustrated.
Chalkley, A. P. : Electro-Mechanical Locomotiv
Cities, The Art of Laying Out,

Illustrated.
Cities, Methods of Laying Out, .

Illustrated.
Clark, Walter L. : Modern Car Wheel Turning,
Collision, An Interesting Marine, .
Concrete, Engineering Works in, .

Illustrated.
Concrete Work in New Zealand, Reinforced,

Illustrated.
Congestion, Problems of Municipal,
Constanza, The New Harbor Works at,

Illustrated.

Conveyors,

Illustrated.

Cotton Mill Efficiency, Modern, .

Illustrated.
Cotton Mills, Protective Appliances in,

Illustrated.
Cotton Picking Machinery, Electric Driving of,

Illustrated.
Crawford, H. M. : Modern Cotton Mill Efficiency,
Protective Appliances in Cotton Mills, .

Illustrated.

Crowds of Humanity, Handling, .
Demand and Supply, ....

Design, Air Pump,

Development of Inventions, The, .
Developments of Shipbuilding, Recent,
Diack, William: The Scottish Granite Industry,
Driving of Textile Machinery, Electrical,
Illustrated.

Edsall, Henry J.: Conveyors,
Efficiency, Modern Cotton Mill, .
Illustrated.

Electricity on Shipboard, ....

Electric Driving of Cotton Picking Machinery,
Illustrated.

Electrical Driving of Textile Machinery,
Illustrated.

Electric Railway Traction

Electro -Mechanical Locomotives, .
Illustrated.

Emerson, H. D.: Long-Distance Gas Transmi
Engines, Balancing of Reciprocating,
Illustrated.

Engineering, Ordnance,

Engineering Structures, Painting, .
Engineering Works in Concrete,

Illustrated.

Equipment, Replacement of Railway, .
Exposition, The Brussels International,
Illustrated.

Exposition, The Fire at the Brussels,
Feed Water, Boiler, ....
Fighting Power of Battleships, The,

R. M. Neilson,
Walter L. Clark,

F. Boettge,

Chas. W. Barnaby,

D. A. Willey,

B. W. Wilson,

Frank Foster,
Fr. Bock,

Henry J. Edsall,

H. M. Crawford,

Albert Walton,

Arthur Pestel,
Benjamin Taylor,

W. B. Woodhouse,

H. M. Crawford,

J. M. Heslop,
Albert Walton,

W. B. Woodhouse,

A. P. Chalkley,
R. J. Grimshaw,

D. A. Willey,

J. O. Newman,

Archibald S. Hurd

PAGE

215,373
209

Illustrated.

INDEX

insj Encrines,

ttleships

Foster, Frank: Problems of Municipal Congestion,
Fredericks, Lauriston: The Brattleboro Hydro-Electric Plant^
Gas Transmission, Long-Distance,
Illustrated.

Gear Driving for Machine Tools, .
Illustrated.

German Navy, The Steam Turbine in the,
Illustrated.

Gibbs, William E. : Vanadium Steel, .
Good, T.: Mining Accidents,
Government, The Administration of,
Granite Industry, The Scottish,
Illustrated.

Grimshaw, R. J.: Balancing of Reciprocat

Gyroscopic Action,

Handling of Small Materials, Mechanical
Illustrated.

Handling Crowds of Humanity,
Harbor Works at Constanza, The New,
Illustrated.

Heinsohn, Gustave: The Present Situation of Rubber,
Heslop, T. M. : Electricity on Shipboard,

Horse Power, The,

Humanity, Handling Crowds of,

Hurd, Archibald S. : The Fighting Power of Ba

Hydro-Electric Plant, The Brattleboro,

Illustrated.

Industrial Betterment

Industry, The Scottish Granite,

Illustrated.
Interesting Marine Collision, An, .
International Exposition, The Brussels,

Illustrated.

Inventions, The Development of, .
Jones, Lucien: Reports, ....
Laying Out Cities, The Art of,
Illustrated.

Laying Out Cities, Methods of,
Illustrated.

Locomotives, Electro-Mechanical,

Illustrated.

Lokhtine, V.: The Mechanism of River Beds,
Long-Distance Gas Transmission,

Illustrated.
Machinery, Electric Driving of Cotton Picking,
Illustrated.

Machinery, Electrical Driving of Textile,
Illustrated.

Machinery, Packing, ....
Materials, Mechanical Handling of Small,

Illustrated.
Machine Tools, Gear Driving for,

Illustrated.
Marine Collision, An Interesting, .
Mechanical Handling of Small Materials,

Illustrated.
Mechanical Purification of Air,

Illustrated.
Mechanism of River Beds, The,

Illustrated.
Methods of Laying Out Cities, , ,

Illustrated.

H. D. Emerson,
Thomas R. Shaw,
Fr. Bock,

William Diack

G. F. Zimmer.

Fr. Bock,

H. M. Phillips

Lauriston Fredericks,

H. F. J. Porter,
William Diack,

J. O. Newman,

Arthur Pestel,

F. Boettge,

Chas. W. Barnabv

A. P. Chalkley,

H. D. Emerson,

Albert Walton,

W. B. Woodhouse,

S. Whettal, .
G. F. Zimmer,

Thos. R. Shaw,

G. F. Zimmer,
C. L. Browne,
V. Lokhtine, .
Chas. W- B^rnaby

PAGE

182
39
19

408
333

174
368
187
323

348
94
54

479
243

3
252
361

479

3°3
323

283

387

75
472
483

400

130

427,5*4
19

114

476
54

408

283
54

564

427,514

400

INDEX

Mills, Protective Appliances in Cotton,

Illustrated.

Mining Accidents,

Modern Car Wheel Turning,

Illustrated.

Modern Cotton Mill Efficiency,

Illustrated.

Motors for Aeroplanes, Recent Progress in,
Illustrated.

Municipal Congestion, Problems of, ...
Neilson, R. M. : The Propulsion of Cargo Boats,
New Harbor Works at Constanza, The,
Illustrated.

Newman, J. O.: The Brussels International Exposition,
New Zealand, Reinforced Concrete Work in,
Illustrated.

Ordnance Engineering,

Packing Machinery,

Painting Engineering Structures,

Pestel, Arthur: The Development of Inventions,
Phillips, H. M. : The Horse Power, ....

Piling, Steel Sheet, I., \

Piling, Steel Sheet, II.,

Piling, Steel Sheet, III.,

Illustrated.

Plant, The Brattleboro Hydro-Electric,
Illustrated.

Porter, H. F. J. : Industrial Betterment,
Portraits:

McFarland, Walter M.,

Collins, A. Frederick

Langley, Samuel Pierpont,

Zeppelin, Count Ferdinand von, .

Woolson, Ira H.,

Kapp, Dr. Gisbert,

Power, The Horse,

Power of Battleships, The Fighting,
Illustrated.

Present Situation of Rubber, The,
Problems of Municipal Congestion,
Progress in Motors for Aeroplanes, Recent,

Illustrated.
Propulsion of Cargo Boats, The, .

Illustrated.
Protective Appliances in Cotton Mills,

Illustrated.
Purification of Air, Mechanical,

Illustrated.
Railways of Brazil, The, I., .
Railways of Brazil, The, II., .
Railways of Brazil, The, III.,
Railways of Brazil, The, IV.'
Railways of Brazil, The, V., .
Railways of Brazil, The, VI.,

Illustrated.
Railway Equipment, Replacement of,
Railway Traction, Electric,
Railway Transport, Relation of Canals to,
Readjustments, Transportation,
Recent Achievements in Aviation,
Recent Developments of Shipbuilding,
Recent Progress in Motors for Aeroplanes,

Illustrated.

H. M. Crawford,

PAGE

49°

T. Good,
Walter L. Clark,

H. M. Crawford,
W. F. Bradley,
Frank Foster,

Fr. Bock,

B. W. Wilson

S. Whettal,

J. F. Springer.
J. F. Springer
J. F. Springer

182

215,373

243

Lauriston Fredericks,

H M. Phillips,
Archibald S. Hurd

Gustave Heinsohn
Frank Foster,
W. F. Bradley,

R. M. Neilson,

H. M. Crawford,

C. L. Browne,

Lionel Wiener.
Lionel Wiener
Lionel Wiener,
Lionel Wiener.
Lionel Wiener
Lionel Wiener

S. Whettal,

Benjamin Taylor,
W. F. Bradley,

215,373

INDEX vii

PAGE

Reciprocating Engines, Balancing of, R. J. Grimshaw, . . . 348

Illustrated.

Reduction of Wastes, The, 188

Reinforced Concrete Work in New Zealand, . . . B. W. Wilson, . . . 291

Illustrated.

Relation of Canals to Railway Transport, S. Whettal, .... 79

Replacement of Railway Equipment, 382

Reports, Lucien Jones, . . . 472

River Beds, The Mechanism of, I., V. Lokhtine, . . . . 427

River Beds, The Mechanism of, II., V. Lokhtine, .... 514

Illustrated.

Rubber, The Present Situation of, Gustave Heinsohn, . . 3

Scottish Granite Industry, The, William Diack, . . . 323

Illustrated.

Shaw, Thos. R. : Gear Driving for Machine Tools, 408

Sheet Piling, Steel, I., J. F. Springer, . . . 160

Sheet Piling, Steel, II., . . J. F. Springer, ... 258

Sheet Piling, Steel, III., . . J. F. Springer, . . . 315

Illustrated.

Shipboard, Electricity on, J. M. Heslop, . . . 252

Shipbuilding, Recent Developments of, .... Benjamin Taylor, . . 64

Situation of Rubber, The Present, Gustave Heinsohn, . . 3

Steam Turbine in the German Navy, Fr. Bock, .... 333

Illustrated.

Steel Sheet Piling, I., J. F. Springer, . . . 160

Steel Sheet Piling, II., J. F. Springer, . . . 258

Steel Sheet Piling, III., J. F. Springer, . . . 315

Illustrated.

Steel Vanadium, William E. Gibbs, . . 174

Structures, Painting Engineering, 574

Supply, Demand and, 190

Synchronizing Alternators, S. G. Winn 153

Illustrated.

Springer, J. F.: Steel Sheet Piling, .... 160,258,315

Taylor, Benjamin: Recent Developments of Shipbuilding, 64

Textile Machinery, Electrical Driving of, . . . . W. B. Woodhouse, . . 25
Illustrated.

Tools, Gear Driving for Machine, ..... Thos. R. Shaw, . . . 408
Illustrated.

Traction, Electric Railway, 381

Transmission, Long Distance Gas, H. D. Emerson, ... 19

Illustrated.

Transport, Relation of Canals to Railway, . . . . S. Whettal, .... 79

Transportation Readjustments, 92

Turbine in the German Navy, The Steam, .... Fr. Bock, .... 333
Illustrated.

Turning, Modern Car Wheel, Walter L. Clark, . . . 209

Illustrated.

Vanadium Steel, William E. Gibbs, . . 174

'Walton, Albert: Electric Driving of Cotton Picking Machinery, 114

Wastes, The Reduction of, 188

Water, Boiler Feed, 189

Whettal, S. : Relation of Canals to Railway Transport, 79

Packing Machinery, 476

Wiener, Lionel: The Railways of Brazil, 83, 99, 195, 339, 553, 456

Willey, D. A. : Engineering Works in Concrete, 138

Wilson,. B. W. : Reinforced Concrete Work in New Zealand, 291

Winn, S. G.: Synchronizing Alternators, 153

Woodhouse, W. B.: Electrical Driving of Textile Machinery, 25

Works at Constanza, The New Harbor, Fr. Bock, .... 243
Illustrated.

Works in Concrete, Engineering, D. A. Willey, . . . 138

Illustrated.

Zimmer, G. F. : Mechanical Handling of Small Materials, 54

WALTER M. McFARLAND

The Babcock & Wilcox Company

See page 95.

INDEXED.

Cassier's Magazine

AN ENGINEERING MONTHLY

Vol. XXXVIII

MAY, 19 10

No.

THE PRESENT SITUATION IN RUBBER

By Gustave Heinsohn

THE price of crude india-rubber,
which of late has advanced to
an unprecedentedly high level,
is a matter of concern not alone to the
manufacturers of rubber goods ; it
touches the pocketbooks of the con-
sumers of such goods, whose name
is legion and who are scattered in
every country on the globe. For it
must be considered that practically
all civilized persons to-day require,
in some shape or other, more or less
rubber in connection either with some
business or industry or their personal
convenience or comfort.

The growth in the use of rubber —
a practically valueless commodity
prior to the discovery of the process
of "vulcanization" less than seventy
years ago — has been unique in indus-
trial history. Not that the quantity
of the material has become so large,
in comparison with some others which
serve as bases of manufacturing. It
must be kept in mind, however, that
the use of the principal metals, tex-
tile materials, leather, and so on,
antedates history, whereas there are
men now living who were doing im-
portant work in the world before
Charles Goodyear patented his vul-
canizing process.

It is probable that no other com-
modity ever came into such varied
use within so short a period as india-

rubber. First employed practically
for footwear and other waterproof
apparel, rubber has come to be em-
ployed in electrical insulation, hose
pipes for the conveyance of water,
steam, air, and so on; pneumatic and
other tires for all sorts of wheeled
vehicles, balloons and the planes of
aerial machines, innumerable articles
for the comfort of invalids, house-
hold conveniences, and what not.
A point of interest in this connection
is that, thus far, rubber has never
come into use to an important ex-
tent for any given purpose to which
it is not still devoted ; in other words,
its advantages are so marked in many
uses that, when once introduced, no
substitute can be found for it.

These considerations help to ex-
plain the present high cost of india-
rubber. More than twelve shillings,
or three dollars, lately has been paid
per pound for rubber in important
quantities, and the best informed
opinion in the market is that a lower
level of prices is not to be looked for
in the near future. What such a
price means is better understood when
it is mentioned that the best rubber
cost only one-fifth as much twenty
years ago, while up to 1855 rubber
was at times a drug in the market
at not over a shilling a pound. Of
course, all rubber does not fetch the

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

same price. The market custom is to
quote the highest grades, it being un-
derstood that when these realize any
given figure lower grades may be ex-
pected to cost relatively lower prices
for differences in quality commonly
understood.

It will readily be understood that
at times the consumption of rubber
exceeds the world's production. Such
was the case during the last year, for
which complete statistics are avail-
able. Of course, there exist at all
times stocks of rubber of various
grades scattered through the markets
of the United States and Europe,
not to mention the primary markets
of the tropical rubber - producing
countries ; and it seldom happens that
it is impossible for a manufacturer
to obtain any grade of rubber de-
sired so long as he is able ' to pay
the price demanded. But it may be
said with accuracy to-day that the
production of rubber is falling be-
hind the consumption.

The rubber goods manufacturer
does not first take account of the
stocks of raw material and plan his
operations accordingly. On the con-
trary, he considers the orders placed
with him for goods and buys the raw
material necessary for filling the or-
ders. One of the most important
factors in putting up the cost of
crude rubber in recent years has
been the rapid growth of the auto-
mobile industry. While it is true
that the ingenuity of the pneumatic
tire inventors and builders has been
the basis of the increase in automo-
biling, the increased demand for rub-
ber has come more directly from the
makers of motor cars than from the
makers of tires. The rubber manu-
facturers, however, do not want to be
found wanting, and in their efforts
to supply the ever-rising demand for
tires they buy rubber at whatever
cost and turn it into equipment for
motor wheels.

Rubber is unique also in the re-
spect that, whereas its place has been
established among the world's neces-
sities— and no longer among its

luxuries merely — and whereas its
production and consumption grow
steadily, its cost as steadily advances.
Most other commodities have de-
clined in price in the face of in-
creased demand and an established
rate of consumption. It is necessary
to refer only to steel as an illustra-
tion. The difference is to be found
in that rubber is a natural product,
brought into a serviceable condition
by hand labour in tropical regions
unsuited for residence by any peo-
ple yet known as civilized.

Not the least remarkable fact in
connection with the output of rubber
is that so many pounds of the mate-
rial come out of the Amazon valley
annually, gathered by the constant
application of the work of ignorant
natives, cutting into the bark of the
trees day after day, with the gain from
such trees daily of a few teaspoon-
fuls of latex, which, by the la-
borious "curing" process, yields
perhaps half of its volume in the
rubber of commerce. In other rub-
ber countries the yield per man's
work is smaller and the money value
less, since no other rubber is com-
parable to that obtained from the
Amazon species of trees.

Here it may be mentioned that
commercial rubber is derived from
no less than 300 or 400 species,
as classified by botanists, scattered
throughout the world's equatorial
belt. Most of these species are not
persistent in their yield, so that many
regions in Africa colonized by Eu-
ropean Powers, once opened up
to the production of rubber with
promising results, have gradually de-
clined in yield. This has been true,
for example, of the Congo Free
State, the rubber interest of which
has been discussed so widely. Already
the merchants reputed to have profited
so largely from rubber under the
former regime on the Congo are di-
verting their investments to other
regions, as now offering larger re-
turns from rubber. It is recognized
that the world's chief reliance for
rubber is upon the Hevea species.

THE RUBBER SITUATION

native to the Amazon valley, the trees
of which may be "tapped" perenni-
ally, with an undiminished yield, and
the product known commercially as
"Para" rubber, from the port of that
name, realizes a permanently higher
price. Para rubber, by the way, is
the only grade that can be used in
the better classes of goods, such as
tire inner tubes, rubber threads,
elastic bands, first-grade rubber foot-
wear, and many other articles.
Cheaper rubber enters into garden
hose, door mats and rubber goods in
general in which elasticity, for one
thing, is not a requisite.

The rubber trees in the Amazon
region, scattered among dense for-
ests over an area nearly as large as
the United States, are accessible only
during part of the year, owing to the
annual rise in the rivers. For the
most part, there is no settled popula-
tion in these regions, and such popu-
lation as does exist is extremely
sparse. The climatic and hygienic
conditions have been most unfavour-
able for the introduction of other
labourers than natives of tropical
South America, and those do not in-
crease rapidly. It may be said that
the labour conditions alone have been
sufficient to prevent the supply of
Para rubber from reaching a rate
comparable with the world's de-
mands. Yet the situation is not hope-
less. Nearly forty years ago the
British Colonial Office, through the
agency of the Kew Gardens, intro-
duced specimens of the Hevea rub-
ber tree from the Amazon into the
Far East, with the result that it has
become acclimatized, particularly in
Ceylon and the Federated Malay
States. The local botanical gardens
having demonstrated the practicabil-
ity of cultivating this rubber in re-
gions where rubber is not indigenous,
planters of tea, cocoa, and the like,
have taken up the new crop enthusi-
astically, and with unexpectedly good
results. During the past year nearly
10,000,000 pounds of plantation rub-
ber was exported from Ceylon and
Malaya at prices higher than were

realized for any other rubber in the
world, for the reason that it was
marketed in a cleaner condition than
the "forest"- rubber shipped from
Para.

The favourable results from Hevea
in the British East Indies led to ex-
periments in planting the same
species in the Dutch East Indies and
in many of the European colonies in
Africa. From many of these planta-
tions rubber is received regularly in
the markets of Europe and the United
States. Manufacturers show a pref-
erence for the new type of rubber,
and the extreme high prices reported
nowadays in the daily press relate to
the product of plantations. The
financial results attained by some of
the planters have attracted wide-
spread attention, dividends as high
as 100 per cent, having been paid by
some of the first companies formed ;
but these doubtless were capitalized
very conservatively.

The rapid increase in the rate of
yield of rubber plantations already
productive and the extensive new
planting which such results have en-
couraged have led to the expression
of fears of over-production within
the next decade or sooner. In re-
spect of such fear it may be sug-
gested that —

1. All the plantations formed to
date can hardly be expected to realize
such results as in the case of the
best that have been reported.

2. A considerable part of the
plantation product is required an-
nually to offset the falling off in for-
est rubber in various colonies in
Africa and elsewhere.

3. There is no prospect of a de-
cline in the consumption of rubber ;
on the contrary, a vastly larger de-
mand is reasonably to be expected.

There remains to be considered a
new regime on the Amazon — the
home of Hevea rubber. Hitherto
the normal conditions of rubber gath-
ering in the hinterland of Para has
been work on a small scale by in-
numerable independent operators —
but not independent financially. These

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

were furnished with food and other
supplies by provisioners at the mouth
of the Amazon, who had a first lien
on any rubber produced. The small
operators referred to sent their col-
lections of rubber downstream when-
ever a chance opportunity offered,
and it was sold by the provisioner to
whom consigned at whatever the
day's price might be. There was
little system involved except that a
condition of indebtedness was gen-
eral. In view of the risks involved,
every middleman had to figure on
large book profits, and in very many
cases these were the only profits
realized in the business.

Gradually a new condition has
come about in South America, due in
no small degree to the successful
planting in Ceylon of Hevea rubber —
a variety of which the Brazilians
once believed themselves to hold a
monopoly. But, in view of the com-
petition of the Far East now recog-
nized, the necessity for better busi-
ness conditions on the Amazon is
now seen, and of supplying rubber
to consumers at lower prices than
were thought possible formerly. The
larger profits in Ceylon, by the way,
are due to the fact that the "mar-
ket" for rubber is still made by the
Amazon product, which is eight or
more times as large as the Eastern
plantation output. As the planta-
tions yield more, and at a minimum
of cost, due to scientific management,
it is the hope of the planters that
they can sell to consumers at a good
profit, but at figures which would
spell loss on the Amazon.

Whatever in reality may be the
situation as between Ceylon and
Amazon, an awakening has occurred
in the latter region, embracing gov-
ernments, merchants, financiers, ship-
ping interests and the newspapers,
as well as the rubber handlers,
and already definite results are in
prospect.

The new normal condition on the
Amazon will embrace :

I. The ownership in fee simple of
large rubber-producing areas, where-

as formerly such ownership did not
exist.

2. The operation on a large scale
of rubber collection by the land
owners, with ample capital, who will
"provision" their own camps without
the aid of middlemen.

3. The clearing out of forests and
the planting of rubber between the
Hevea trees already standing and
productive, just as virgin jungle in
the East is cleared and planted to
rubber.

4. The transportation of supplies
up and down the streams by means
of boats owned by the rubber pro-
prietors.

5. The exportation by the pro-
ducers of their own rubber, possibly
to consumers in Europe and North
America.

6. Arrangements whereby branches
of State banks will finance such oper-
ations as have been outlined above —
something not provided for by law
in the past. Recently the Brazilian
banks have begun to make advances
on rubber in storage.

To sum up : There is little prospect
of more forest rubber being produced
as a whole, though here and there a
new district may be opened and for
a while yield liberally, offsetting a
decline in production in a new colony.
Meanwhile, the world will constantly
demand more rubber. One hope for
the consumers is based upon the in-
troduction of rubber cultivation in
the Far East. The people of the
Amazon have accepted the challenge
of the East, and in the competition
of the Old World and the New in
the supplying of Hevea rubber con-
sumers of this grade may ultimately
obtain more regular supplies, in bet-
ter condition, and at much lower
prices ; but all of this will take time.

The development of the world's
rubber industry is best illustrated by
the volume of production of the raw
material, for the reason that at no
time has the production largely ex-
ceeded the immediate consumption.
To take the Amazon region alone,
the official figures of production for

THE RUBBER SITUATION

the different years stated have been :

Year Tons Year Tons

1827 31 1875 7,730

1836 156 1880 8,679

1845 561 1885 11,782

1850 1,469 1890 15,355

1855 2,197 1895 19,310

1860 2,672 1900 26,748

1865 3,546 1905 35,393

1870 6,602 1909 39,452

For a long time the production of
other than Amazon rubbers was negli-
gible, but finally it equaled the amount
exported from Para, and then the out-
put of forest rubber other than Hevea
began to decline, though the figures
for some other countries are un-
official. A recent approximate esti-
mate of the sources of rubber from
a reputable source is as follows :

Tons

The Amazon River 39,000

Other Brazilian sources 2,800

Mexico and Central America 1,500

Africa 18,800

Asia (other than plantations) 1,200

Plantation rubber 4,600

Total

67,900

The absolute stocks of rubber in
the world at any time, outside the
hands of manufacturers, cannot be
stated ; but the best authorities of
late years have reported them lower
than formerly. Thus, a leading Lon-
don firm lately reported the total visi-
ble supply at only 5,000 tons, as
against 8,000 tons one year previ-
ously, and to-day the figures are be-
lieved to be lower than 5,000 tons.

And now may be introduced the
estimates, by a leading Antwerp

firm, of the world's production and
consumption of rubber in tons :

Year Production Consumption

1895 34,277 33,952

1897 39,890 38,719

1899 49,790 48,251

1901 51,892 50,490

1903 55,948 54,195

1905 69,507 65,727

1907 68,646 64,528

1909 69,372 70,075

In every comment upon such fig-
ures it must be considered that, un-
like metals, the tendency of rubber is
to shrink in weight from the hour of
production, and that no cargo of rub-
ber ever yet crossed the sea without
a heavy loss in avoirdupois. A thou-
sand tons may be the accurate weight
of a cargo of rubber in the country
of production ; what it may show on
the scales in the consuming countries
is a different question.

Note. — The preceding statistics
state only what has become recog-
nized as standard grades of rubber.
In recent years some gums of a lower
standard have appeared in the market
from different countries, which are
available in the rubber factories, and
which are likely to be improved to an
extent which will entitle them to fig-
ure in the statistics of rubber ; but
to include them at this time would
confuse the study of rubber statistics
on any basis now customary. Some
such gums are marketed at prices as
low as eight cents a pound, and the
total production in this class is prob-
ably 20,000 tons a year.

THE FIGHTING POWER OF BATTLESHIPS

By Archibald S. Hurd

SINCE the British battleship
Dreadnought, embodying the
all-big-gun principle, was de-
signed and the familiar auxiliary arm-
ament was abandoned, an old contro-
versy has been revived as to the fight-
ing power of battleships of various
nationalities, for there are very
important variations in design be-
tween the ships building, for instance,
for the British fleet and those under
construction for Germany and be-
tween those on the stocks in the
United States and the contemporary
vessels of Japan.

There is a tendency to judge the
power of a ship by the amount of
metal which can be thrown if all the
guns were fired simultaneously and
without regard to whether they could
be brought to bear upon an enemy or
could be fired as fast in war as they
can be fired in theory — on paper. This
method of judging a ship of war is
somewhat analogous to the cannibal's
idea of effective music. To an untu-
tored savage the most effective piano
would be one in which the loud pedal
was always On, and the player in order
to produce the greatest volume of
sound struck all the notes at once. To
the practiced ear the result would not
be music. In the same way to the ex-
pert gunnery officer the idea of
mounting as many guns as possible in
a ship — it may be crowding them to-
gether so closely as to become a danger
to the crew rather than the enemy —
and firing them all at once is not effec-
tive gunnery. Naval shooting is no
longer a matter of discharging a num-
ber of shells haphazard in the hope
that a proportion of them will hit the '
enemy. It has become an exact science.

A battleship, or battleship-cruiser

of the Inflexible type, is merely a
floating gun platform. It is the child
of the modern gun, and the modern
gun is of a very different character
from the weapon which was mounted
in the navy even forty or fifty years
ago. It is now a weapon of precision
and of very high power. Some years
ago Sir Andrew Noble gave some
most interesting particulars of the
guns which in 1850 formed the prin-
cipal armament of British frigates or
line-of-battleships, and we thus obtain
material for comparison with the
weapons carried by the newest ships
being built and of the strides which
the science of gunnery — of hitting an
enemy first and hitting him hardest —
has made. The progress of gunnery
has been due to the marvelous series
of triumphs achieved by the gun
makers of the world, spurred on to
further effort by a spirit of emulation,
and by recurring improvements in
armour manufacture. As a result
strategy and tactics count for nothing
if the ship's officers and men cannot
use the guns so as to hit the enemy.
The only object of a man-of-war and
of all the laborious training of the
crew is to hit first, to hit hard, and to
keep on hitting.

Within a short period of 1850, the
long peace which succeeded the Na-
poleonic wars was broken and at the
time, within the vivid recollection of
thousands of persons, the principal
guns with which the ships were armed
were old 32-pounders. They were, as
Sir Andrew Noble recalled, weapons
of rude construction, being mere
blocks of cast iron, the sole machinery
spent upon them being in the forma-
tion of the bore and the drilling of
the vent. The carriage upon which

THE FIGHTING POWER OF BATTLESHIPS

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Photograph copyright by Stephen Cribb, Southsea.

THE BOW OF H. M. S. ST. VINCENT

this rude gun was mounted was even
more rude. It was made entirely of
wood. The recoil was controlled by
the friction of abnormally large
wooden axles and sometimes by
wedges, the gun being finally brought
to rest by the rope breeching which
attached the piece to the vessel's side.
The elevation was fixed by quoins
resting on a quoin bed, and hand-
spikes were used for training and ele-
vating. In 1858 the committee on
rifled cannon recommended the intro-
duction of the rifled Armstrong gun,
the advantage of this weapon in re-
gard to range, accuracy and penetra-
tive power being conspicuous. The
increase in accuracy was, however,
the point that attracted most attention.
At a range of 1,000 yards half the
shot from a rifled gun fell in a rect-
angle of about 23 yards long by one
yard wide, while in the case of a
smooth-bore gun the corresponding

rectangle was about 145 yards long by
10 yards broad. After this period im-
provements made in powder enabled
velocities of 1,200 and 1,300 foot-sec-
onds to be raised to 1,600 foot-sec-
onds, although the maximum pres-
sure in the gun was considerably re-
duced. Certain experiments carried
out at Elswick soon afterwards led to
the velocities of rifled projectiles be-
ing at once raised from 1,600 foot-
seconds to 2,100 foot-seconds, the
maximum pressure remaining the
same. The consequent increase of
pressure by nearly 75 per cent, ren-
dered necessary the reconstruction of
guns and their mountings. In 1877
experiments destined to have import-
ant bearings on the progress of naval
artillery were being made. For
nearly seven centuries — since the days
of Roger Bacon — gunpowder had had
no serious competitor, but at last it
was replaced by cordite, the advan-

THE FIGHTING POWER OF BATTLESHIPS

tages of the newer explosive being the
absence of smoke and an increase of
energy of about 50 per cent, without a
higher maximum chamber pressure.

Such was the early history of artil-
lery as applied to men-of-war. It
was a slow movement forward at first,
but in the last decade or so it has ad-
vanced with extraordinary rapidity.
The latest type of British naval gun of
50 calibres weighs 65.8 tons, will pene-
trate eight inches of armour at thir-
teen miles, and costs about £ 100
every time it is fired ; its rate of fire
may be as high as two rounds a min-
ute, so quick is the method of loading
and firing". This is the weapon
mounted in the latest British battle-
ships. Its length with the breech
chamber added is 617.7 inches. The
projectile, of 850 pounds in weight,
has a muzzle velocity of 3,010 foot-
seconds and a muzzle energy of 53,-
400 foot-tons. The fire delivery pos-
sibilities of this new gun are remark-
able. During the proving tests two
guns of the British battleship Colling-
wood mounted in one turret got off
eight rounds in two minutes, and four
guns in two turrets got off sixteen

rounds in two minutes forty-five sec-
onds, full service charges being used.

As an illustration of the progress of
naval ordnance it may be added that
in the former Collingwood — one of
the old Admiral class — was mounted
the first 12-inch breechloading gun
and this weapon weighed forty tons,
was 25.25 bores in length, and threw
a projectile weighing 850 pounds,
with a muzzle velocity of 1,914 foot-
seconds and a muzzle energy of 18,-
130 foot-tons. It had a penetrative
power equal to sixteen inches of
wrought iron at 3,000 yards. The
newest gun will penetrate 32.9 inches
of wrought iron at the same range, the
projectiles being identical in each case.

The Navy Department of the
United States has recently perfected
an even more remarkable weapon and
experiments have been made in Eng-
land with a new 13.5-inch gun. The
American gun is of 14 inches and
weighs 64 tons, or 10 tons more than
the weapon which has just been
placed in the battleships North Dakota
and Delaware. Its extreme length is
53^2 feet and it uses a projectile of
1,400 pounds. The shell will issue

I fit

!.' ,;,/ ;

1 ' -It' rliilf1

— i MfclB

1 >** ■

, y ^

■■■:■

■ taBI

L/^M

■

Photograph copyright by Stephen Cribb, Southsca.

st. Vincent's 12-inch guns starboard

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

from the muzzle — after traveling in
the bore a distance of 542 inches — at
the rate of 2,600 foot-seconds and its
muzzle energy is 65,606 foot-tons, or
13,000 more than the North Dakota
and Delatvare guns. Its penetrative
power is given as 22.7 inches of best
Krupp armour at the muzzle and 13
inches at 9,000 yards.

This brief review indicates the
strides which have been made in naval
artillery since the old 32-pounder gun
was regarded with something of won-

will have traveled 120 yards if steam-
ing at 20 knots, and that it is useless
for another shot to be fired until the
degree of accuracy of the first has
been judged by the splash or the dam-
age inflicted and connections have been
made, it will be understood that mere
rapidity of possible fire is a matter of
less account than is sometimes imag-
ined, since there is a limit beyond
which it may prove merely waste of
ammunition, of which the supply in a
modern ship is restricted by reason of

Photograph copyright by Stephen Cribb, Southsea.

vanguard's aft 12-inch guns and observation platforms

der sixty years ago, but it conveys no
adequate conception of the wonderful
degree of accuracy in hitting which is
now possible, and it is this which ex-
plains the attention which is now be-
ing paid to the training and practice of
the gun's crews in all the navies of
the world.

The whole theory of gunnery has
been changed by the development of
the gun. These new weapons must
be used scientifically — range, direc-
tion, wind, light, the speed of the
enemy and of the firing ship and many
other points have to be considered.
When it is remembered that an 850-
projectile even from the latest gun
takes 12 seconds to travel five miles,
that during that time an enemy's ship

its heavy weight and the space which
it occupies.

These problems have led to the de-
velopment of modern naval gunnery,
of which Vice-Admiral Sir Percy
Scott was the pioneer. In the British
and American fleets the gunnery sys-
tems adopted are very similar. The
reason is not far to seek. Commander
W. Sims, of the United States Navy,
was serving in the Far East at the
time when Sir Percy Scott was de-
veloping his system of gunnery train-
ing. The result of this association of
ideas may be seen in the designs of
British and American battleships to-
day, and the absence of this associa-
tion of ideas accounts for the differ-
ent mounting of guns adopted in other

THE FIGHTING POWER OF BATTLESHIPS

O 3

■"u

S 2'

-5

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

navies, of which the German may be
regarded as a typical illustration. All
the world is now bent on the construc-
tion of battleships of the all-big-
gun type, but the principle first
introduced in the British fleet is
being carried out in various ways. The
variations in design are revealed in the
following very brief particulars of the
battleships building for British, Amer-
ican, German, French, Brazilian, Ital-
ian, Russian and Japanese navies :

American vessels are of inferior fight-
ing power.

It is impossible, however, to judge
the1 relative merits of various ship de-
signs by such an easy method of rule-
of-thumb calculation. Many import-
ant factors must be taken into con-
sideration before judgment is passed.
Fighting efficiency, which is another
word for ability to hit, does not de-
pend on the multitude of guns
mounted in a battleship, because the

Navy

Name of Ship

Tons

Knots

British. .

. . Orion

22,500

U. S. A.

. .Wyoming

26,000

20'A

German. .

. Ostf riesland . . .

22,000

2oy2

France. .

. .Danton

18,300

Brazil. . .

. Minas Geraes. .

19,250

Italy

. Dante Alighieri.

18,300

Russia. . .

. Sevastopol . . ..

23,000

, . Kawachi

20,800

20 y2

Armament
X., 12 in., 50 cal.; XX., 4 in.
XII., 12 in., 50 cal.; XXII., 5 in.
XII., 12 in., 50 cal.; XII., 5.9 in.; XVI., 3.4 in
IV., 12 in., 50 cal.; XII., 9.4 in., 50 cal.; 24 small quick-firers.
XII., 12 in., 50 cal.; XXII., 4.7 in.
XII., 12 in.; XVIII., 4.7 in.
XII., 12 in.; XVI., 4.7 in.
XII., 12 in.; X., 6 in.; XII., 4.7 in.

It will be seen that the designs
adopted in the British and American
fleets closely resemble each other,
while in Germany and Japan some re-
duction in other fighting qualities is
held to be compensated for by the
mounting of 6-inch guns. It is a moot
point, all things considered, which is
the best anti-torpedo weapon, the 4-
inch gun of the British service, the
4.7-inch gun of Italy and Russia, the
5-inch gun of the United States, or the
6-inch weapon adopted in Japanese
and German battleships. In British
and American designs only two types
of gun are carried — the 12-inch, of
which there are ten, and the 4 or 5-
inch. In Germany, on the other hand,
on a smaller displacement, which
means a smaller deck space, they
mount a large number of 12-inch guns
in association with a secondary arma-
ment similar to that carried before the
all-big-gun principle was introduced,
as well as a number of quite small
anti-torpedo weapons. The result of
these variations in design is that the
aggregate amount of metal which
could be thrown by a German ship,
for instance, is very much greater than
the amount which could be discharged
from a British or American if all the
guns were fired simultaneously. The
amateur critic is apt therefore to rush
to the conclusion that the British and

guns may be either of the wrong
types or may be so crowded together
as to interfere with one another. In
judging the fighting efficiency of this
battleship or that it is important to
ascertain which has the highest facili-
ties in hitting first, in hitting hard,
and in keeping on hitting. The fac-
tors which enter into the consideration
of this somewhat complicated subject
were recently admirably summarized
by an expert writing in the Daily
Telegraph of London.

In the first place, there is the build
of the vessel. She may be a lively
ship which rolls, or she may be a fairly
steady platform when at sea. The
Royal Sovereign rolled over 30 de-
grees before she was fitted with bilge
keels, and as a fighting unit of a fleet
she and her seven sisters were conse-
quently at a great disadvantage, as, in-
deed, are many foreign battleships to-
day. It must be apparent that a steady
ship is the desideratum of the gunnery
officers ; steadiness facilitates accuracy
in laying the guns, and accuracy in
laying the guns means more probabil-
ity of hitting the enemy. The gun-
layer is very much in the same position
as a photographer. If the latter is
mounted on an Irish jaunting-car with
a fast-trotting cob he will find it diffi-
cult— indeed, impossible — to secure a
picture. The steadier the camera the

THE FIGHTING POWER OF BATTLESHIPS

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

better defined the photograph, other
things being equal.

Another consideration is the nature
of the gun carried. With equal veloci-
ties, the heavier the gun the flatter is
the trajectory, which again means
more possibility of hitting. The aim
of the gunnery officer is always to
fight with a gun with a flat trajectory
— that is, which fires the projectile so
that it goes as straight as possible

which the officer or officers up above
on a platform or platforms, with the
advantage of a wider range of vision
than can be obtained from the deck,
"control" the actions of the gun's
crews in the turrets by some system of
mechanical signaling. There are vari-
ous methods, some of which are radi-
cally unsound as a means of ensuring
hits. In some cases the method is too
complicated in its principles ; in others

Photograph copyright by Stephen Cribb, Southsea.

st. Vincent's 12-inch guns amidships

from the time it leaves the muzzle un-
til it strikes an enemy's ship — it may
be three, four or five miles away.

Then there is a third important
point which cannot be ignored — the
disposition of the armament. The
guns may be badly placed in relation
to one another or to the ship's struc-
ture. It follows as a matter of course
that if one ship, owing to the wisdom
with which the guns have been dis-
posed, can bring more guns to bear on
an enemy than another, she has more
probability of hitting.

A further factor, comparatively
new, but none the less of immense
moment, is the method which is used
for "controlling" the fire of the guns.
This consists of some arrangement by

the installation of the instruments may
not be good.

Much depends also upon the ability
and experience of the officer control-
ling the fire, and upon the ability with
which the gunlayers perform their
duties. The marked superiority of
some ships of the British navy over
others of the same type at target prac-
tice illustrates this only too fre-
quently ; some fire many times as well
as others.

Lastly, the nature of the armament
will greatly affect the facility of con-
trol and the consequent hitting power.

None of these factors can be ig-
nored in attempting to reach a solu-
tion of the relative merits of different
battleships. By way of illustration we

THE FIGHTING POWER OF BATTLESHIPS

may consider the development of
British battleship design, and with
slight variations the development has
been similar in the United States navy.
Ten years ago the typical ship was of
15,000 tons, mounting four 12-inch
guns and twelve 6-inch weapons.
Greater power was desired, so as to
give to the British fleet ships of the
line markedly superior to those being
built in foreign navies. The Admi-
ralty consequently laid down the King
Edward VIII. class, carrying three de-
scriptions of guns — four 12-inch, four
9.2-inch and ten 6-inch. Each descrip-
tion of gun required a separate officer
aloft to control the group and a sepa-
rate installation of instruments. Con-
sequently in those days there were
three distinct parties of officers and
men in three distinct "stations" to
control the three distinct descriptions
of guns. In these circumstances it was
soon discovered that confusion arose,
and the hitting power of the ships was
thereby reduced.

An improved design was forthwith
prepared, and the British navy ob-
tained the Lord Nelson and Agamem-
non, in which the 6-inch guns were
eliminated, leaving only two types of
guns, and consequently only two "con-
trol" stations and two groups of con-
trol officers aloft. Thus we get this
summary of naval development:

Formidable

King Edward VII.

Lord Nelson

(15,000 tons)

(16,350 tons)

(16,500 tons)

4 12-in.

12 6-in.

4 9.2-in.

10 6-in.

10 9.2-in.

The Lord Nelson was hailed as the
ship of a new epoch, and foreign
navies almost immediately commenced
to reconsider their designs — the
French laying down six somewhat
larger vessels embodying an armament
of two types of guns.

Experience, however, showed that
this dual control, though an improve-
ment on that of the King Edzvard VII.
class, was not satisfactory, particu-
larly as in training the gun-layers —
as would have been the case in battle
— it was difficult to distinguish be-
tween the splashes made by the 850-
pound shells of the 12-inch guns and

1-2

the 380 shells of the 9.2-inch weapons,
and therefore it was not easy to cor-
rect any error in the range. Thus it
came about that leading gunnery ex-
perts, such as Vice-Admiral Sir Percy
Scott in the British service and Com-
mander William Sims in the United
States fleet, decided that the only sal-
vation was one type of big gun for
battle and one fire control installation
for the whole armament. Such a ship
offered better facilities for obtaining a
high standard of hitting power.

In this manner the British and
American fleets came to adopt the all-
big-gun principle as embodied in the
latest types of men-of-war. In both
navies an effort was made to secure
the maximum hitting capacity on a
limited displacement. This could be
obtained only by the adoption of a new
principle in association with the all-
big-gun idea. Hitherto the big-gun
battleship had carried two turrets each
mounting two guns of the largest
calibre able to fire on either broadside.
Associated with this main armament
there was a port and starboard battery
of secondary guns. In these circum-
stances when such a vessel went into
action, she could bring a broadside to
bear of four big guns, but only half
her secondary armament. Thus at a
given moment in an action she carried
a number of secondary guns, repre-
senting dead weight and unemployed
guns' crews, which did not affect the
momentary hitting power. The new
principle which has been adopted in
the latest English and American bat-
tleships is that with the elimination
of the secondary armament the in-
creased number of big guns shall be
disposed as to enable all of them to be
fired on either broadside. The result
is that at a given moment of battle
British and American ships will be
able to concentrate on either broadside
the whole of their main armament,
and at the supreme moment there will
be no weight carried or guns' crews
of the main guns unemployed in the
main business of war. In the German
navy the designers have still clung to
the old principle of multiplicity of

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

TWELVE-INCH GUNS OF THE DREADNOUGHT CLEARED FOR ACTION

guns, and consequently a proportion
of the weight allotted to the main ar-
mament of the ships is ineffective at
every moment during the period of
action. For instance, whereas the
British and American ships which are
now being completed for sea can
"bring ten 1 2-inch guns to bear on
■either broadside, the German vessels,
although they carry two more guns,
can only bring the same number to
bear on either broadside, and they
suffer from the disadvantage that,
owing to the introduction of the extra
two guns, the weights assigned to ar-
mament are not only greatly increased,
but, owing to the closer disposition of
guns, there is liability to greater in-
terference, and the strain upon the

structure of the ship at the time of
firing is also probably increased.

Now that a further increase in ship
displacement is taking place, probably
the battleship of the future will have
sufficient deck space to enable twelve
large guns to be mounted on the axial
line so as to bear upon either broad-
side, but in any case it is certain that
British and American constructors, in
association with officers of the respec-
tive fleets, will evolve designs of their
own— effective designs, which may not
necessarily be in line with those of
other constructors. In a technical
matter of this kind, each navy must act
up to its light and in accordance with
its own predelictions and with the con-
ditions obtaining; at the time.

LONG-DISTANCE GAS TRANSMISSION

By Harrison Dexter Emerson

The possibilities of the transmission of fuel in the gaseous state by forcing it through pipe lines have
been discussed at various times, and the question of cost, leakage, and general practicability examined.
One phase of the subject involves the feasibility of generating ■ fuel gas at the coal mines and the
delivery of the gas to distant cities. So far as the operative problems connected with the actual pumping
of gas are concerned, these have been taken out of the scope of conjecture and given practical demonstra-
tion in connection with the delivery of natural gas from the wells to the city of Pittsburg from points
several hundred miles distant. Mr. Emerson gives some of the facts connected with the long-distance
pumping of natural gas through pipe lines from the fields of Pennsylvania and West Virginia, and the
data thus available will be welcomed as representing actual and efficient practice. — The Editor.

POWER is transported in many-
ways. The principal method
and the oldest is the shipment
of coal or other fuel by rail or water
lines from the point of production to
the point of consumption. Electrical
development has added another im-
portant method, in which the power
is generated and carried or trans-
ported over transmission lines to the
consumer. A third and very efficient
method of handling power has been
developed in the Pittsburg district, in
Pennsylvania, by which ' natural gas
is transported through pipe lines from
the point of production to the con-
sumer.

It is not the purpose of this paper
to discuss the comparative efficiency
of these three methods at the pres-
ent time, but to outline the history of
the development and the present
state of the art of gas transmission,
and point out possible future eco-
nomical development.

It is of interest to note that these
three methods of transporting power
are radically different in one respect.
The coal as it is shipped is energy
stored, and the daily production and
consumption have no direct relation
to each other. In the transportation
of gas the pipes act as a reservoir
and the daily consumption and pro-
duction must be equal, but the stor-
age capacity of the pipes equalizes
and reduces any temporary demands
or temporary lull. With electricity
consumption and production are equal
and instantaneous, and the productive

capacity must be equal to the tem-
porary maximum demands of the
consumers.

The natural gas industry in the
Pittsburg district started first as the
utilization of a waste or by-product
from oil wells. Subsequently wells
which were drilled for oil but failed
therein and developed "gassers," were
connected together to supply com-
mercial and domestic fuel. Then
longer pipe lines were built and there
uprose the industry of supplying nat-
ural gas, competing with artificial
gas and coal for light and fuel. In
the early days the natural pressure
from the wells was sufficient to force
the gas through the pipes. But ex-
perience demonstrated that this nat-
ural pressure was unsatisfactory and
unreliable, because it fluctuated widely
under variations of consumption and
under climatic conditions. When the
demand became greatest — that is, in
cold weather — the pressure decreased
and the volume of gas flowing
through the pipes diminished, and the
supply was unsatisfactory.

The pressure on any particular well
also diminishes as the well grows
older. This decrease in pressure does
not follow a regular rate, but is
peculiar to each well.

These conditions led to the build-
ing of pumping plants, taking the
gas from the wells and putting it into
the transporting or supplying mains
at a different pressure. The first
plants constructed were steam com-
pression plants, the gas being burned

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

GAS PUMPING STATION AT WAYNESBORO., PENNSYLVANIA

under boilers as a fuel and steam
used to drive compressors very sim-
ilar in design to those used for com-
pressing air. Some of these plants,
as installed near Pittsburg, were quite
efficient. In one instance it is re-
ported that it produced an indicated
horse-power with 16 cubic feet of
gas which was equivalent to about 8
per cent, of the gas compressed.
This plant raised the pressure from
atmosphere to 300 pounds.

Within the past few years, follow-
ing the development of the gas or
internal-combustion engine, large and
very efficient plants have been con-
structed in which the natural gas is
used directly to produce the motive
power. Speaking of the results of
the operation of one of these plants,
the manager of one of the largest
companies supplying Pittsburg with
gas says : "Among modern gas-
pumping machinery are some of the
finest' specimens of mechanic art.

Probably nowhere has a greater
amount of work been done with the
same expenditure of fuel than has
been accomplished in gas compres-
sors ; in fact, it is doubtful if the re-
sults have been equaled in any other
power plants. An indicated horse-
power has been maintained for one
hour with less than the equivalent of
two-thirds of a pound of coal. Thirty
cubic feet of gas have been com-
pressed with the expenditure of but
1 cubic foot of gas in producing the
power."

Gas engines in units as large as
5,000 horse-power have been installed
for this service, and an example of
such a gas-power gas-pumping plant
is shown in the accompanying illus-
trations, which represent the station
at Waynesboro, Pa. These engines
are provided with ingenious devices
for starting and for regulation, in
order to maintain a pre-determined
uniform pressure in the delivery pipe

H2'*-

POWER GAS TRANSMISSION

Sc„U o/ Al.fes

GENERAL LOCATION OF GAS-PUMPING PIPE LINES ENTERING PITTSBURG

LIBRARY

!. S. PATENT OFFICE

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

INTERIOR OF GAS-PUMPING STATION AT WAYNESBORO, PENNSYLVANIA

Showing tandem gas-ptimping engines in units of 5,000 horse-power, built by the Snow Steam Pump
Company, Buffalo; also power traveling crane by the Whiting Foundry Equipment Company, Harvey,
Illinois.

line, regardless of the volume pass-
ing through the pumps.

The labour employed by a plant
such as that illustrated is ridiculously
small when compared with the power
generated, and is comparable only
to the small amount of labour neces-
sary to operate a hydro-electric plant,
and it is questionable which form has
the advantage over the other.

In pumping oil through pipes it is
usual to pump it a certain distance
and then use a relay pump for the
next stage. In handling gas this is
not as efficient a method as to com-
press the gas at the first station to a
maximum density. The amount of
gas that can be passed through a
line between given points depends
upon the difference between the
squares of the initial and discharge
pressures. It is much more eco-

nomical to pump the gas with one
high-stage compression at the initial
end than to relay it with several low-
stage compressions. The practical
result of this experience is that the
compressor plants are placed in con-
venient locations to the wells and the
gas is forced through the transport-
ing lines to the immediate vicinity of
consumption, where the pressure in
the city distributing lines is regu-
lated by equalizing valves.

The principal cost of transporting
gas — or, as it really is, power — through
pipe lines is evidently the interest on
the capital required, depreciation and
maintenance. That there are many
instances where this is much lower
than rail or water haulage of an
equal amount of power is unquestion-
able. Whether it is less than the
electric methods is a mere guess, as

POWER GAS TRANSMISSION

ANOTHER VIEW OF THE WAYNESBORO GAS PUMPING STATION

the companies which own the pipe
lines have been very secretive about
costs and maintenance charges. That
it has been, and is, extremely profit-
able, is proved by the earnings of the
companies which supply many cities
in the territory served by the Pitts-
burg and West Virginia district.

Conservative investors have re-
frained from advocating the securi-
ties of these gas companies, not be-
cause the efficiency of the method of
transporting was questioned, but be-
cause they were skeptical as to the
continued supply of the natural fuel.
As early as 1888 an English engineer,
in a monograph on the then infant
natural gas industry, called attention
to the fact that, should the natural
gas fail, the companies could erect
coke ovens and send the artificial gas
through their lines in place of the
natural gas. It is immaterial whether
the coke or the natural gas be con-
sidered the by-product of the mod-
ern improved oven, because either

would pay all expenses and leave the
other as a net clear profit.

Modern mechanical engineering is
responsible for the fact that cities
such as Cincinnati and Cleveland, lo-
cated several hundred miles from the
gas fields, are able to enjoy the ad-
vantages of a convenient low-priced
and abundant gas fuel for commer-
cial and domestic uses. The two
principal elements which should be
mentioned in this connection are the
economical and efficient gas com-
pressors as here illustrated, and riv-
eted pipe lines which can be con-
structed at a reasonable rate, but
which will stand high pressures with-
out undue leakage.

It is reasonable to predict that
plants will be constructed in the
future to handle artificial gas alone,
and when this is done a part of the
now tremendous cost of handling and
delivering coal in large cities will be
eliminated, and a large economic sav-
ing will result.

THE ELECTRICAL DRIVING OF TEXTILE
MACHINERY

By W. B. Woodhouse

MUCH of the discussion as to
the relative merits of me-
chanical and electrical driv-
ing of textile machinery would have
been avoided had it been possible to
determine accurately the losses in me-
chanical transmission in a steam-
driven mill, and it may be said that
the practical difficulties in the way of
doing this have largely tended to pre-
vent a true appreciation of the effi-
ciency of electrical driving.

Comparisons between different mills
are of little value, and the electrical
engineer is compelled to rest his
claims for improvement on tests of
individual machines and an inductive
reasoning therefrom. That the claims
of advantages are none the less true
the following article is intended to
show.

The principal claims made for
electric driving are :

Lessened losses in transmission of
power.

Increased steadiness of speed and
output.

Improved financial results by the
adoption of the electric drive.

MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY

The first point of importance is to
decide the relative mechanical effi-
ciency of the two methods.

On the electrical side it is a matter
of extreme simplicity to determine
not only the total friction and elec-
trical losses, but to separate the
losses in each department as tests
may be made under actual operating
conditions from day to day, and the
effect of climatic conditions and wear
observed with accuracy.

Unfortunately, with mechanical
transmission it is impossible by prac-

tical methods to determine the losses
to any degree of accuracy, and this
inherent fault has had much to do
with the comparatively slow adoption
of electric driving.

The established method of estimat-
ing friction losses by indicator dia-
grams taken when the engine is driv-
ing only the shafting and belts is an
inaccurate one for the following rea-
sons:

All friction losses so recorded in-
crease with load ; the engine itself
has smaller pressures in every part
and less friction ; the total pull in
belts and ropes, due to their elasticity,
and the loss of power increases with
the load, and the pressure on shaft
bearings increases also ; gearing losses
vary in the same way, and, except as
a means of comparison from day to
day, "friction" cards are valueless.

Mills vary so considerably in their
equipment that it is difficult to state
a figure of losses which is of gen-
eral application ; it may, however, be
safely said that the electrical trans-
mission from switchboard to machine
is more efficient than the mechanical
in practically every case.

The efficiency of a modern mill en-
gine under load, after deducting
the power required for pumps and
auxiliaries, is of the order of 90 per
cent. That is to say, the horse-
power given out by the engine is 90
per cent, of the indicated horse-
power.

The average efficiency of electric
motors (of the sizes generally used)
when running with from three-quar-
ters to full load may be taken as the
same, viz. : 90 per cent. That is to
say, the useful horse-power given out
by the engine is equal to the useful

ELECTRIC DRIVING

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.4iiiiiuiiitiiiiiiiiuitti(ijuAMiMMUii

FIG. lA. RECORD FROM FIRST MAIN SHAFT AT 80

R. P. M., DRIVING TOTAL MILL LOAD

horse-power given out by the mo-
tors; this being so, there are left to
be considered the losses in belts,
ropes, bearings and gearing in the
mechanical drive as against the
smaller amount of shafting losses in
the electrical drive and the very small
losses in wiring. If, therefore, the
installation of motors reduces the
amount of shafting and number of
belts in a mill to any appreciable ex-
tent, the electric drive will be more
efficient, and the amount of the gain
will depend entirely on the reduction
of shafting effected.

As an example of the amount of
electrical losses, the following figures
may be taken as representative for
a 1,000 horse-power cotton spinning
mill with group driving:

Per Cent.

Losses in wiring 2.5

Losses in motors 9-0

Losses in shafting and belts 10.0

Total 21.5

■iz.

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FIG. lC. RECORD TAKEN AT MIDDLE OF SHAFT

These results are not "paper" esti-
mates, but are deduced from a num-
ber of exhaustive tests made by Mr.
F. B. Perry and presented in a paper
before the American Cotton Manu-
facturers' Association in 1906.

The no-load losses are, of course,
much lighter in the case of electrical
driving than mechanical ; as an ex-
ample, tests made by the writer in a
woolen mill driven by motors of a
total of 300 horse-power gave a no-
load loss of 13 per cent.

The writer has tested a large num-
ber of mechanically-driven textile
mills, and has rarely found the fric-
tion card to indicate less than 30 per
cent, of the maximum power. In
many cases it rises to 50 per cent.
The conversion to electrical driving
is accompanied by a very consider-
able reduction of the shafting and
gearing and a corresponding reduc-
tion in the power used.

The electrical drive has one con-
tingent advantage which may be men-
tioned here — the efficiency of that

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FIG. IB. RECORD TAKEN AT DRIVEN END OF SHAFT ON FIG. ID. RECORD TAKEN AT FAR END OF SHAFT, 120

FOURTH FLOOR OF MILL, WEAVING DEPARTMENT FEET AWAY

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

shafting which is left may be main-
tained at its highest level by observ-
ing the power taken by each motor
from day to day.

This is an advantage of no small
value, as the adjustment of bearings,
the working of lubricators, the ten-
sion of belts, and the wear of gear-
ing may add considerably to the
power required.

With mechanical transmission even
the most careful supervision cannot
keep the gearing up to its original
efficiency.

ward by electrical engineers for in-
creased output and improved quality
of material due to steady driving.
The evidence of mill owners on this
point is, of course, of the greatest
value, but there is a natural disin-
clination on the part of most users
of power to publish their results.
That the claims are borne out the
writer has ample evidence of a con-
fidential nature ; but, fortunately, in
addition the claims can be readily
corroborated by means of speed
records taken from the textile ma-

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FIG. 2. RECORD FROM WEAVING-SHED LINE SHAFT. EFFECT OF FLY-WHEEL ON OSCILLATIONS AT FAR

END OF SHAFT

Electrical driving has enabled en-
gineers to accurately measure trans-
mission losses under practical condi-
tions of use ; it has shown, for ex-
ample, the valuable reduction in
starting friction, due to the use of
ball-bearings ; tests on spur-wheel
gearing have shown the efficiency of
a pair of wheels to drop from 96 per
cent, when new to 78 per cent, when
old ; tests on belts have shown an
average loss per belt of from 5 to 8
per cent, of the power transmitted ;
friction losses in bearings have also
been estimated accurately, and the
writer knows one case where, by
changing the spindle oil, a manufac-
turer reduced the power taken by his
frames by 10 per cent.

OUTPUT AND SPEED VARIATION

The second main issue is to deter-
mine the value of the claims put for-

chines when driven by the two
methods.

The speed record of the engine is
obviously of little value, as. the shafts,
belts and gearing transmitting the
power to the machines are all capable
of producing disturbances ; records,
to be of any value, must be taken
from the machine whose output is
under consideration.

The most convenient arrangement
of textile machinery when mechanic-
ally driven is undoubtedly in long
rooms, the line shaft being driven
from the end. Apart from the extra
cost of shafting, there is no serious
disadvantage in driving spinning
frames in this manner ; but in the
case of mule spinning or of weaving
sheds the method is an unsatisfactory
one, and there are few long weaving
sheds so driven in which there is not
a noticeable difference in the per-

ELECTRIC DRIVING

FIG. 3. EIGHT 60-HORSE-POWER MOTORS, COMPLETE WITH STARTING GEAR, INSTALLED IN WEAVING-SHED

ALLEY. BRITISH WESTINGHOUSE COMPANY, MANCHESTER.

Each motor drives three line shafts.

formance of the looms at the two weaver and produce a poorer quality

ends. Those away from the driv- of cloth.

ing end not only require more "tun- The reason for this is that the line

ing," but give more work to the shaft, being subject all along its

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

PIG. i. VIEW ALONG WEAVING-SHED ALLEY

Taken underneath Fig. 3.

length to irregular resistances and
being by its nature elastic, makes, as
it rotates, torsional oscillations, which
increase in magnitude as the distance
from the driving end increases.

The results of speed tests in a
large number of mills show this
oscillation to exist in every case and
to an amount rarely appreciated by
the mill owner. The diagrams. Fig. I,

ELECTRIC DRIVING

FIG. 5. VIEW OF WEAVING SHED IN A LANCASHIRE COTTON MILL. ELECTRIC GROUP DRIVING BY

ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTORS

show speed records of a typical
woollen weaving shed in which
thirty-four looms are driven from a
line shaft 120 feet long, the line shaft
being driven by an engine with a
maximum speed variation of 5.5 per
cent. It will be seen that the speed
variation increases from 9 per cent,
to 16.5 per cent., the latter a varia-
tion almost great enough to prevent
the satisfactory operation of the end
looms. Fig. 2 is a record from an-

other mechanically-driven mill, the
line shaft in this case driving the
looms being 190 feet long and being
itself, with other similar shafts,
driven by bevel gearing from a cross
shaft. The record is of interest as
showing the result of a mechanical
method of reducing the oscillations
by belt driving a heavy fly-wheel
from the far end of the shaft. The
improvement made by this means can
hardly be called a notable one.

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FIG. 6. SPEED RECORD FROM ELECTRICALLY-DRIVEN WEAVING SHED LINE SHAFT

3°

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

As a comparison, Fig. 6 is" a
record from the end of a motor-
driven line shaft driving looms, the
motor being fixed in the middle of
the shaft.

When a machine is driven by suc-
cessive belts and shafts from a main
engine, an additional cause of speed
'variation is introduced — each shaft
oscillates, each belt slips and creeps ;
moreover, the variation of speed
caused by one class of machinery is
reflected to the other machines all
over the mill. There is also a varia-

used to motor-drive textile machin-
ery in groups or individually by a
motor to each machine, and from
speed records taken in the two cases,
the results are, in practically every
case, favourable to the latter method ;
but the problem must, of course, be
settled by financial considerations.
The saving in power and the steadier
speed of the individual drive are offset
to a greater or less extent by the
extra cost of the smaller motors per
horse-power and by the necessity for
a margin of power on each motor

TiTne in Ho^ri

FIG. 7. REPRESENTATIVE CHART OF POWER TAKEN BY LOOMS

tion from day to day which has
effect in reducing output.

In considering such records as
these there naturally arises the criti-
cism that electrical driving of ma-
chinery in groups does not altogether
do away with belts, and slipping will
not be altogether obviated. This is,
of course, the case, and the relative
merits of group and individual driv-
ing for each class of machinery re-
quire careful consideration.

GROUP VERSUS INDIVIDUAL DRIVING

From a consideration of the power

greater in total than that required
in a group drive.

Fig. 7 is a power chart taken from
a motor driving twenty-eight looms,
of which an average of twenty-four
were in use at any one time. The
fluctuations are such that the indi-
vidual drive would require motors of
a total capacity 15 per cent, in ex-
cess of that of the single large mo-
tor and costing more than twice as
much. The decision must, however,
be made by a consideration of the
total costs and the value of the
product in each case. The use of the

ELECTRIC DRIVING

FIG. 8. THE INDIVIDUAL DRIVE OF LOOMS BY MOTORS WITH FRICTION COUPLING. SIEMENS

BROTHERS, LONDON

individual drive will increase the
output and the capital expenditure
on motors. It will decrease the cost
of power and the proportion of es-
tablishment charges ; if the value of
the first two items exceeds the lat-
ter, then it will be advantageous to
adopt the individual drive.

CONTINUOUS CURRENT VERSUS ALTER-
NATING

The conditions under which a mo-
tor has to work in a textile mill are

not favourable to the use of com-
mutating machines unless they are
completely enclosed and separately
ventilated. The temperature in cer-
tain departments frequently rises to
80 or 90 degrees Fahr., the air is
humid, and a quantity of dust and
lint is deposited from it, both con-
ditions tending to cause sparking of
the brushes.

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FIG. 9A. NO LOAD VARIATION ON COUNTERSHAFT,

MULE STANDING. STEAM ENGINE DRIVING

FIG. 9B. VARIATION OF COUNTERSHAFT SPEED,

MULE RUNNING, NORMAL WORKING CONDI-
TION; STEAM ENGINE DRIVING

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Usually every available foot of
floor surface is occupied by the ma-
chinery, and it is necessary to fix the
motors to the walls or ceilings; this
being so, the motors are somewhat
difficult of access and cannot receive
the regular and frequent attention
required by a direct-current machine.

The induction motor only requires
attention at long intervals for the
purpose of inspecting bearings and
cleaning, and may quite properly be

speed in the afternoon, by which
time the field coils had heated up,
exceeded the morning speed by 8 per
cent. Regulation can, of course, be
effected by a rheostat; but careless-
ness in the use of this might cause
serious trouble, and, at best, its use
can only be regarded as a makeshift.
Where the direct-current motor is
driving a load of a rapidly varying
nature a more serious disadvantage
appears in its inability to respond in-

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FIG. 10. CURVE SHOWING VARIATION IN POWER REQUIRED DURING ONE COMPLE.E CYCLE B\

SELF-ACTING MULE

fixed in such places. For the ma-
jority of textile machines constant
and uniform speed is a matter of
the first importance. On this vital
point the direct-current motor has in-
herent defects.

A synchronous alternating-current
motor will run at absolutely constant
speed ; an induction motor will vary
in speed from no load to full load
by 2l/2 to 3 per cent; but this varia-
tion is independent of voltage varia-
tion and temperature. When driving
a steady load the motor is practically
a constant-speed machine.

The direct-current motor, even on
an absolutely uniform load, will vary
in speed, due to these causes ; the
writer has known cases where the

stantaneously to a change of load.
This may be illustrated by reference
to Figs. 9, ii and 12, which are
typical speed records taken from
mules; first, driven mechanically by
belts from a main engine ; second,
driven by a direct-current motor
supplied from a compound-wound,
engine-driven, direct-current gener-
ator; third, driven by an induction
motor supplied with alternating cur-
rent from the public mains.

The load curve corresponding is
shown in Fig. 10, and it will be seen
that the direct-current motor gives
a speed curve which is a reflection
of the changes of load. The ex-
planation is a simple one, but this
peculiarity makes such a motor en-

ELECTRIC DRIVING

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FIG. 11. RECORD FROM MAIN SHAFT, NO LOAD, ALL

MULES STANDING. DIRECT-CURRENT DRIVING

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FIG. 12. RECORD FROM MAIN SHAFT, NO LOAD, ALL

MULES STANDING, ALTERNATING-CURRENT DRIVING

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FIG. llA. RECORD FROM MAIN SHAFT, ALL FOUR

MULES RUNNING, NORMAL WORKING CONDITION,
DIRECT-CURRENT DRIVING

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FIG. 12A. RECORD FROM MAIN SHAFT, ALL FOUR

MULES RUNNING, NORMAL WORKING CONDITION

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FIG. llB. RECORD FROM COUNTERSHAFT OF ONE

. MULE. ALL MULES RUNNING. DIRECT-
CURRENT DRIVING
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FIG. 12B. RECORD FROM MULE COUNTERSHAFT, ALL

FOUR MULES RUNNING, ALTERNATING-CURRENT
DRIVING

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 13. KING SPINNING FRAMES DRIVEN INDIVID-
UALLY BY VARIABLE-SPEED A.-C. MOTORS DIRECT
COUPLED TO TIN ROLLER SHAFTS.
SIEMENS BROTHERS, LONDON

tirely unsuitable for driving such
machinery.

The speed curves referred to were
taken from the same mules in all
cases, and it is interesting to note
the marked superiority of the induc-
tion motor over both the mechanical
and direct-current methods.

THE FINANCIAL ASPECT

Many wild statements have been
made on the subject of power costs
in textile mills, and they have, for
many reasons, been difficult to check.

The enthusiast who, from a test of
a new engine lasting but a few hours
and carried out under the most fa-
vourable conditions, calculates the an-
nual cost of running by mere multi-
plication of the coal account, takes
no notice of the deterioration that
every machine must suffer, and makes
no allowance for the numerous
trifling losses which, over a period
of time, amount in practice to a con-
siderable figure. The careful analysis
of costs kept and published by the

public electrical generating stations
in England are, perhaps, the most
instructive comment on this sort
of estimating. These results have
shown that the difference between
test figures and actual results ac-
counts for increases of coal consump-
tion of from 20 to 50 per cent. But
perhaps the greatest difficulty the
electrical engineer has had to meet
has been due to imperfect and in-
complete accounts kept of the power
bill. There are still manufacturers
who are content to regard the coal
bill as representing their total power
costs.

An analysis of a power account
should include the following items :

Interest on capital expended on
power plant, dam, chimney, build-
ings, engines, boilers, piping, main
shafts, belts and ropes, and all
auxiliaries.

Depreciation on the same.
Coal costs, including cartage and
disposal of ashes.

Wages of enginemen and stokers.
Stores and sundries, oil packing,
etc.

Water, or cost of pumping.
Repairs on engines, boilers, etc.,
boiler cleaning, maintenance of belts,
ropes and shafting.

Rent, rates and taxes chargeable
to the power plant and insurance.

These items will vary according
to the local conditions in each case ;
but, generally speaking, the propor-
tion remains fairlv constant. Capital
charges are about one-half and coal
from 25 to 35 per cent, of the total.
The proportion depends upon the
running hours and the variations of
load during these hours ; for textile
mills have not, as is sometimes as-
sumed, a constant load throughout
the day, and the load varies day by
day, due to conditions of trade and
climate.

The load factor, to use an elec-
trical phrase, is rarely greater than
80 per cent, during running hours,
and over the year the load factor of
most mills lies between 18 and 25
per cent. That is to say, though

ELECTRIC DRIVING

FIG. 14. RING-DOUBLING FRAMES INDIVIDUALLY DRIVEN BY CONSTANT SPEED A.-C. MOTORS DIRECT COUPLED

TO THE TIN ROLLER SHAFT. (BRITISH THOMSON-HOUSTON COMPANY)

the working hours may be one-third
of the year, the current used in that
time is less than that due to a per-
fectly steady load. A neglect of this
important fact has accounted for
many unfair estimates of the cost of
electrical driving.

The annual cost of steam driving
per I. H. P. varies from £3 to £5,

depending on the size of the mill and
the hours of working.

The equivalent electrical cost per
unit can only be stated when the
nature of the load is known; but, as
an example, the costs of a 700
I. H. P. steam plant are given and
the equivalent cost per unit of elec-
tricity calculated.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 15. ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTOR DIRECT COUPLED TO THE TIN ROLLER SHAFTS OP TWO RING-
TWISTING FRAMES. (BRITISH THOMSON-HOUSTON COMPANY)

Note the friction clutch for each frame

Capital cost of plant, £7,500.

Equivalent
Pence
Annual Cost Per Unit
Interest and depreciation at

12 y2 per cent £937 0.224

Coal at 10 shillings per ton. 700 0.168

Wages 250 0.060

Repairs 150 0.036

Stores 50 0.012

Rates, insurance, etc 150 0.036

£2,237 0.536

The final test of the value of elec-
tric driving is its effect on the bal-
ance sheet, and it is here that the
value of increased output becomes
most apparent.

The cost of equipping a mill with
motors, assuming a public supply of
power be taken, is less than the cost
of boilers, engine and main drives
by usually one-half. If this saving
be invested in productive machinery,
the earning capacity of the mill and
of the capital invested in it is in-
creased.

An extra output, due to steady
speed, will be obtained in addition

to this, and without any addition to
the standing charges.

The balance sheet will, therefore,
show a two-fold improvement.

The proportions of the items con-
sidered above will vary for each par-
ticular trade, but the general prin-
ciples stand, that money expended on
productive machinery is earning the
profit, all other expenditure is a
dead weight on the business, and
that extra output, due to improved
driving, will enable a greater profit
to be earned without any increase of
capital or standing charges ; "dump-
ing," of which so much has been
heard recently, is only possible on
account of this principle.

Electric driving can justify the
claims made for it, and, this being so,
the problem for the mill owner is no
longer an engineering but a finan-
cial one. It has come to stay, and no
mill owner can afford to neglect the
lesson of the figures given above.

ELECTRIC DRIVING

In conclusion, a few notes on the
methods of electrical driving may be
of interest.

The low working costs obtained
in modern mechanically-driven textile
mills are very largely due to the ex-
cellent millwrighting put into them,
embodying, as it does, the results of
many years of experience.

Electrical driving may give unsat-
isfactory results if the importance of
the millwright's work is not realized,
and although the results of any par-
ticular method of driving may be
readily measured, foresight in the
first case will save disappointment.

Mechanically, the best method of
driving spinning frames is by direct
coupling the motor to the tin roller,
as illustrated in Figs. 13, 14 and 15.
The fear that such an arrangement
would cause too severe a stress on
the yarn and bands when starting

has been found in practice to be un-
justified, and for a frame spinning
one particular count of yarn at all
times the method of driving is 11 n-
equaled.

In converting existing frames de-
signed for mechanical driving, it is
an advantage to increase the speed of
the tin roller in relation to that of
the spindles ; the ratio of the speeds
is usually of the order of 10 to 1,
and a reduction of this will give a
more satisfactory drive and enable
a high-speed motor to be used.

Where, as in the woolen trade,
spinning frames are regularly work-
ing on different counts of yarn, di-
rect coupling can only be applied if
a chang-e speed gear is part of the
frame, otherwise the most satisfac-
tory arrang-ement is to fix the motor
to the ceiling in the place usually
occupied by the gallows pulleys and

. . .;_•* r . ,-1 f ri 1 f i { fflffltwt i mtm § i mam i mat i rr 1 1 in;

1 ^mmwmimimmniimi

\mMMmm\

•iif 11 ifi; rrnitHmrrjjiVr kVi'i t

W^mmmiiimi

" - i ?•*'♦.»"«■«- '*»'•/'

■^Hihinrnmh.

^^mmmmm^

FIG. 16. GROUP DRIVE OF MULE SPINNING ROOM IN A LANCASHIRE MILL. ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTOR

OF 90 HORSE-POWER DIRECT COUPLED TO MAIN SHAFT

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

to drive by a belt. An excellent ar-
rangement, which allows of larger
and proportionately cheaper motors
being used, is to drive two or four
frames from one motor ; in the lat-
ter case the motor is provided with
a double-width pulley at each end
and the belts work side by side.

Mules are usually driven in groups
of two or four by one motor, this
being found to pay better than ap-
plying a motor to each mule. A
group drive is illustrated by Fig. 16.
The load on each mule is, of course,
extremely variable ; the grouping
tends to equalize it. The load factor
of a single mule is less than 50 per
cent, during working hours; that is
to say, the current consumption per
horse-power is one-half of that due
to a steady load. In addition to the
cyclical variation of a mule load,
there is a notable increase in the
power required for the first hour
after starting in the morning.

The individual driving of looms
has proved successful in many cases,
particularly in silk weaving-, where
extra cleanness, due to the absence of
belts, is a great advantage. Me-
chanically, the method is most satis-
factory ; commercially, the advantages
are, in most cases, not sufficient to
justify the extra expenditure. The
output from a loom varies so much
with the skill of the weaver that mill
owners can hardly be blamed for
neglecting an increased output of 2
to 3 per cent, when the output due to
the human element may vary by as
much as 30 per cent.

The usual method of driving is in
groups of ten to sixteen from a mo-
tor-driven line shaft, the motor being
fixed at the middle of the shaft to
reduce torsional oscillations, and the
results obtained are highly satisfac-
tory.

Preparing machinery, such as cot-
ton openers and woolen willeys and
shakers, is somewhat variable in
its load. Carding and scribbling
machines are very steady, and for
this reason are usually group-driven ;
electrical driving shows an interest-
ing increase in the power required by
such machines after "fettling."

In woolen mills the milling de-
partment requires a large and variable
amount of power, and group driving
usually presents advantages over in-
dividual. This department is fre-
quently worked overtime, and the
advantages of a public supply of elec-
tric power in such case are consid-
erable.

Many figures have been published
of the power required by textile ma-
chinery, but unless very full details
are given of the machines, a state-
ment of horse-power is not of great
value ; the importance of knowing
the average consumption of energy
as well as the maximum power is to
be borne in' mind. The steady ac-
cumulation of data by electrical en-
gineers is daily making the task of
estimating the current consumption
easier, and it is now possible to do
this very closely, and to predict ac-
curately the lessened consumption
due to variations of load.

THE BRATTLEBORO HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANT

By Lauriston Fredericks

In the issue of this magazine for September last, the possibilities of hydraulic-power development
from streams of moderate fall and large volume of flow were discussed, and it was shown that there was
no necessity to search for great waterfalls to secure abundant power for industrial operations. _ In the
present article there is given a concrete example of the extent to which hydraulic power is being
developed upon the Connecticut River, at Brattleboro, so that 20,000 horse-power is taken from the
river, utilizing a head of about 15 feet. — The Editor.

WITH the completion of the
great hydraulic power plant
upon the Connecticut River,
at a point just below Brattleboro, and
not far from the boundary line
of Massachusetts, it will become pos-
sible to deliver power by electric
transmission to two-score cities with-
in a radius of 60 miles.

The power plant has involved the
construction of a dam 650 feet long
and 34 feet high above low-water
mark, requiring the labour of 700
men, in alternate gangs, twenty hours
a day for two years, and costing
about three million dollars.

In view of the advantages offered
by hydraulic power and by electric
transmission, together with the op-
portunities for utilization of power
within reasonable distances of the
site, the greatest hydro-electric plant
in the United States east of Niagara
has been constructed at Brattleboro.

The dam is built upon a rock
formation which reaches clear across
the river at a point about opposite
the Vernon station of the Central
Vermont Railroad. This ledge is
jointed by Nature right into the out-
cropping rock upon either shore,
while the high land beyond afforded
the necessary protection from the
stream at all times.

Between Bellow's Falls, in Ver-
mont, and Turner's Falls, in Massa-
chusetts, there is a reach of some-
thing like 50 miles, in which the river
has a fall of 55 feet. There were no
dams in this stretch ; indeed, the big
watershed of the Connecticut had
never been used for commercial pur-

poses at all except for direct water-
power at Holyoke, Windsor Locks
and Turner's Falls.

It was in July, 1907, that the first
section of the coffer-dam cribbing
was sunk at Cooper's Point. Long
before that time a suspension bridge
had been swung across the river,
offices, storehouses, shanties and a
hospital had been built, a spur track
from the railroad put down, a saw-
mill erected, and a power plant for
furnishing electric light and moving
cranes and hoists had been com-
pleted. In September, 1907, the full
current of the river was deflected to
the west of the rocks that were in
the middle of the channel. The bluff
was washed away at the rate of
1,000 cubic yards a day by a 4- inch
stream of water driven by a 50
horse-power engine. The rock for
the concrete for the bed of the per-
manent dam behind the coffer-dam
was taken from the New Hamp-
shire end of the ledge, where a
luckily-located quarry was found; it
was crushed on the spot and mixed
and delivered with a very small
amount of labour. In each yard of
concrete there were mixed 24 cubic
feet of loose broken rock, 4 cubic
feet of cement and 12 cubic feet of
sand. The width of the concrete bed
in the deepest parts of the river was
65 feet at the base and on shore it
was 20 feet. First the eastern half
of the dam was built up from the
river's bottom and then the western,
stretching, from foundation to crest,
70 feet.
• The power house is on the western

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

washing away the bluff on the new Hampshire shore by a 4-inch water jet

side. It stands on the dam itself, yond is the water spillway, wider

and is 50 feet in height and 250 feet than was the width of the river when

in length. The logway for the the building of the dam was begun,

yearly log crop is next to it, and be- There are ten large flood gates.

disastrous effect of a flood occurring during the early construction period of the dam

THE BRATTLEBORO HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANT

each measuring 7 feet by 10 feet, and
capable, together, of carrying off
.25,000 cubic feet of water piercing
the dam. They will be used in times
of ordinary flood to prevent ex-
cessive damage to land upstream and
to regulate the level of the pond
which is created by the dam. They
move in a steel framework embedded
in concrete. Through the solid ma-
sonry of the dam there has been

In the power house there are eight
vertical water-wheel units which de-
velop 20,000 horse-power. Each of
these units is connected directly
with an alternating-current generator
which has a capacity for generating
3,000 kilowatts of electrical energy.
In addition to these main units, there
are also two exciter units and five
transformers ; each of the latter is
capable of transforming 5,000 kilo-

VIEW DURING CONSTRUCTION, SHOWING SECTION OF THE DAM

made a tunnel or foot passage,
through which a man can pass with 6
feet of concrete between him and the
river above his head. Thus he will
have access to the hoists which oper-
ate these gates.

The dam creates a 22-mile reser-
voir, on the upper 4 feet of which
the storage capacity has been com-
puted to: be 250,000,000 cubic feet of
water. Thus the level of the stream
is raised about 15 feet at Brattleboro,
and where once there were rapids
two miles above the city there is
now still water.

watts from 2,300 volts to 66,000
volts.

Cables carried on steel towers
transmit this power. The transmis-
sion lines are run on private rights
of way, 100 feet wide; the towers are
about 60 feet high, and they stand
400 feet apart. Upon each tower
there are stretched six heavy trans-
mission cables, a telephone circuit and
a guard wire. The towers, it is es-
timated, would require a pull of 11,-
000 pounds applied to their tops to
overturn them ; they are intended to
stand the heaviest strain that will

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

THE 600-FOOT SPILLWAY BELOW BRATTLEBORO, MASS.

ever be put upon them. The in- These transmission lines will carry

sulators are 16 inches in diameter 20,000 horse-power with a loss of

and 3 feet high, and each of them energy of less than 10 per cent. In

has a weight of almost 10 pounds. order that mills may use the electric

VIEW OF THE POWER HOUSE UNDER CONSTRUCTION AND OF THE INTAKES

THE BRATTLEBORO HYDRO-ELECTRIC PLANT

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

STEEL TOWER CARRYING THE CABLES WHICH TRANSMIT THE ELECTRIC POWER

energy that is thus brought to their
doors, it is necessary to lower the
high line voltage by means of sub-
stations, of which four have been
erected on the transmission line that
runs to Worcester, at Gardner, Fitch-
burg, Clinton, and at the Worcester
terminus. The stations on this one
line offer 75,000,000 kilowatt hours
of energy a year at a rate which is
held to be comparable with that for
steam generated from coal costing
$2 per ton.

In the two years that were re-
quired for the building of this dam
the engineers had more than once to
face serious difficulties. One flood
washed away what was called El-
more's Island and carried it down the
river. The crib was filled with ice and
water several times. The first sus-
pension bridge was swept away, and
again the waters climbed to the

planking of the floor of a new bridge
which was built higher still. When
the current was deepest it was esti-
mated that there were 100,000 cubic
feet of water swirling every second
over the dam. Once the machinery
had to be hoisted out of the coffer-
dam at night.

Within reach of this dam by means
of the transmission lines there are
a large number of towns and cities :
Worcester with 130,000 people,
Springfield with 74,000, Lowell with
95,000, Manchester with 60,000,
Fitchburg with 30,000, Pittsfield with
25,000, North Adams with 32,000,
and such smaller places, ranging
down to 5,000, as Brattleboro, Ware,
Keene, Orange, Palmer, and others.

The engineers who constructed the
dam were M. G. Chace and H. I. Har-
riman ; the enterprise was financed
by Baker, Ayling & Co., of Boston.

RECENT PROGRESS IN MOTORS FOR AEROPLANES

By W. F. Bradley

It is now conceded that much of the progress which has been made in aviation is due to the
development of the light-weight, high-power gasoline motor. The experiments of the Wright Brothers in
gliding, in America, and of Santos, Farman, and others, in France, could have resulted in little real
progress had there not been available the motor which had been produced as a result of the work of
Daimler and his followers in the production of motors for automobile service. Since the success of the
aeroplane has been assured, the efforts of the motor constructors have been directed toward still further
improvements as respects reduction in weight, greater assurance of reliability, and further efficiency in
performance. Mr. Bradley discusses some of the latest developments in aeroplane motors, with illustra-
tions of the productions of makers whose reputations are already assured. — The Editor.

DESPITE the conspicuous suc-
cess of one totally unconven-
tional type of motor for aero-
plane work, the decided tendency
among European builders is towards
the standard type of gasoline motor
lightened where the loss of metal
cannot possibly entail loss of strength.
The Wright brothers undoubtedly be-
gan the tendency with their four-cyl-
inder motor of standard design in all
its general features. Up to that
time European makers had been en-
deavouring to obtain lightness by
what they now term "jewelers'
work," or by radical departures in
design from what had previously
been considered the most satisfactory
type. Despite its indifferent work-
manship and defects in detail, the
first Wright motor introduced in
Europe answered the purpose re-
quired of it, and the second series,
built on the same design, but with
all the facilities of a modern shop,
together flew, it is calculated, about
6,000 miles with only three involun-
tary stops.

Convinced that there is a future
for a medium-weight motor capable
of running for hours under full load
without any signs of weakness, prac-
tically every European automobile
constructor has begun experiments on
the lines indicated by the Wright
brothers. Taken collectively, four-
cylinder motors are in the majority
for aeroplane work, though to obtain
this majority about a score of
different firms are involved. The

greatest number of motors of any
one make now being used on aero-
planes is undoubtedly the Gnome, a
seven-cylinder, revolving, air-cooled
type. This, however, is a prominent
exception, for of all the attempts to
obtain lightness and reliability by
a distinct departure from standard
lines the Gnome is the only one that
has really succeeded.

The portion of the motor which
has been most generally attacked as
furnishing useless metal is the water-
jacket. When cast with the cylinders
it gives an amount of metal the
weight of which is altogether dispro-
portionate to the work it has to do,
and, owing to the difficulty of accu-
rate verification, necessitates leaving-
a greater thickness in the cylinder
walls than safety demands. The
Mutel is a good example of weight-
reducing without impairing efficiency,
the four cylinders being cast sepa-
rately, turned inside and out to a uni-
form thickness of metal, mounted on
an aluminum crank-case, and fitted
with a one-piece sheet-metal jacket.
A flange is fitted around the base of
the cylinders and another one above
the valve pockets on the heads, and
it is to these two that the one-piece
water-jacket is welded. The de-
sign, of course, gives a perfect cir-
culation of water around the cylin-
ders as well as around the valve
chambers.

On the Buchet six-cylinder vertical
motor the castings are in pairs, with
onlv a framework water-jacket on

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

GNOME SEVEN-CYLINDER RADIAL MOTOR, AIR COOLED. THE ONLY FRENCH

PROVED SUCCESSFUL

FREAK MOTOR WHICH HAS

each side and the two ends. A suit-
able copper plate is screwed onto this
frame, thus completing the water-
circulating space. The reduction of
metal is not quite so great as on the
Mutel, but the system has the advan-
tage of being one that conforms to
standard workshop practice and offers
no difficulty of realization. As in the
previous case, the valves are carried
side by side in the cylinder head.

The new four-cylinder motor man-
ufactured by the Clement-Bayard -
Company is absolutely standard, with
the exception of the water-jacket.
The four cylinders are in one cast-
ing, with valves on one side in an
outstanding port, but without a
water-jacket. This is added after-
wards in the form of copper cover-
ing profiled to the shape of the mo-
tor and ribbed to allow of dilation.
It is riveted in position along the base
of the combustion chamber, the two
sides and along the head, just be-
hind the valve pockets. Seen from,
the valve side, the motor has entirely

the appearance of the ordinary type
with valves in a pocket on one side.
Seen from the opposite side, only a
one-piece copper jacket is presented.

Panhard, one of the latest French
firms to produce an aviation motor,
has adhered to a design that has had
the test of years of hard automobile
racing experience. The four cylin-
ders are of steel, with separate cast
heads, and each equipped with a cop-
per water-jacket. They are placed so
close together on their crank-case
that a continuous water-circulating
space is formed, the only connection
being a fibre-lined collar between
each two cylinders. The distinctive
feature of the motor is the valve
mechanism, which will be described
later.

Darracq and Clement-Bayard, both
producers of two-cylinder horizontal
motors for the Santos-Dumont and
other similar types of small mono-
planes, use a cast-steel cylinder with
a welded-on copper water-jacket,
valves being in the head. The

AEROPLANE MOTORS

CLEMENT FOUR-CYLINDER MOTOR MOUNTED ON SANTOS-DUMONT S DEMOISELLE MONOPLANE,
SHOWING ALSO THE PROPELLER AND A PORTION OF THE PLANES

Mercedes, a four-cylinder motor in-
spired on the racing car type, is one
of the few adhering to a cast water-
jacket integral with the cylinders.
Mors has a V-type four-cylinder mo-

tor, the water-jacket of which is dis-
tinctive by reason of the unusually
large core openings, enclosed by
light aluminum plates secured by six
or eight bolts, according to their size.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

There is a tendency to employ a
hemispherical combustion chamber,
carry large-diameter valves in the
head, increase the ratio of stroke to
bore, and augment the compression.
The Mutel, Buchet and Mercedes are
examples of this. On the Mutel the
vertical push rods are light steel
tubes and the rocker arms are as
light as possible, while an advantage-
ous feature is the entire accessibility
of the valve mechanism. The Buchet,

not new, there is a good deal of orig-
inality in the way it has been worked
out for the Panhard aviation motor.
It consists of an outer cylindrical ex-
haust valve, which also forms a guide
for an ordinary large-diameter mush-
room type inlet valve. The cylin-
drical stem of the exhaust valve is in
two diameters corresponding with
the borings of the separate head in
which it is guided, and the space be-
tween these two diameters is cut

RENAULT EIGHT-CYLINDER AIR-COOLED MOTOR WITH ENCLOSED BLOWER FOR ASSISTING COOLING AND
HEAVY CAMSHAFT MADE TO RECEIVE PROPELLER

although similar in general features,
differs by the manner in which the
rocker arms are mounted. Being de-
signed after racing car models, there
is nothing about the Mercedes valves
that calls for particular attention.
The valves are in the head side by
side, the four rocker arms being
mounted on a common shaft for a
pair of cylinders and carried in two
vertical steel brackets drilled for
lightness and bolted to the top of the
cylinders.

Although the concentric valve is

away to form an entrance for the
mixture to the inlet valve. The ex-
haust valve is guided at two dif-
ferent points, the lower large diam-
eter portion and the upper and longer
portion, within which is the guide
for the inlet valve stem and the
spring which operates it. The base
of this longer cylinder is closed by
a 'cap, offering a seating for the in-
let valve spring, and the top is
closed by a flanged cap receiving the
upper end of the exhaust valve
spring. On this cap is mounted a

AEROPLANE MOTORS

THE NEW MERCEDES MOTOR, ONE OF THE FEW USING A CAST WATER JACKET

second and smaller rocker arm, at
right angles to the main one, and em-
ployed to operate the inlet valve only.
The main rocker arm has a forked
end, the branches of the fork being
of unequal length. On the rocker
arm being raised by the operation of

1-4

the cam, the exhaust valve is opened
in the usual way, the inlet, of course,
being carried down with it. On the
return of the rocker arm, as the tap-
pet follows the profile of the cam, the
specially shaped forked end operates
the second and smaller rocker from

5°

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

PANHARD CONCENTRIC INLET AND EXHAUST VALVES, AND ROCKER ARMS MOUNTED ON THE CYLINDER HEADS

beneath, thus causing the opening of
the inlet valve.

A distinctive feature is a special
Y-shaped head casting, water cooled,
and screwing into the head of the
cylinder. One arm of the Y is bored
out to receive the intake manifold,
the opposite arm forms a bracket in
which the specially shaped rocker arm
is pivoted, and the centre or stem of
the Y is bored out to receive the cyl-
indrical stem valve. The mere fact
that this type of valve has been
adopted by a firm, of the standing of
Panhard should remove the suspicion
of unreliability that has so long been
attached to it.

Pressed steel pistons, made as light
as possible by reducing the thickness
of metal, by limiting the length to the
lowest limits compatible with proper
guiding, or by drilling the lower por-
tion, are to be found on nearly all
the modern aero motors. An ex-
ample of this is seen in the Buchet
motor, in which the piston is both
short and drilled. A similar design
is emnloved on the Mutel. and in both

cases the connecting-rod is designed
to give • the lowest weight possible.
A certain amount of weight has been
saved on the Mutel and the Mors
motors by employing an aluminum
crank-case without the usual lon-
gitudinal division, the only opening
being at one end, through which the
crankshaft is passed. As for aero-
plane work, the dismounting of the
motor generally entails total dis-
mantling of the power plant, and
the advantage of a detachable crank-
case is not so great as in automo-
biles. The extra rigidity, with a
smaller amount of metal, justifies the
change.

Ignition is invariably by high-ten-
sion magneto only, without the use
of accumulators as a stand-by for
starting. Light-weight magnetos have
been produced, but in most cases the
ordinary car type is employed, the
■ saving of a few ounces of weight in
this direction not being advisable at
the loss of efficiency. Carburetors.
on the other hand, are of the stand-
ard design, but built of the lightest

AEROPLANE MOTORS

metals obtainable, aluminum being
largely employed. In view of the
fact that an aviation motor is con-
stantly called upon to develop its
full power, lubrication cannot be
neglected. In the majority of cases
this is of the forced-feed type to
the crankshaft bearings and through
internal channels to the connecting-
rod ends, with the wrist-pins and cyl-
inder walls supplied by splash.

ployed, each throw receiving two con-
necting-rods corresponding to two
cylinders diversely inclined. On the
Mors a four-throw shaft is employed,
as on an ordinary motor, with the
difference that instead of the throws
being in the same plane they are off-
set in relation one to the other just
the same amount as the cylinders.
The lack of balance thus set up is
rectified by the use of internal bal-

PANHARD MOTOR WITH FOUR SEPARATELY-CAST STEEL CYLINDERS AND PRESSED COPPER JACKETS

Cases in which the connecting-rods
are made hollow to feed the wrist-pins
are comparatively few.

It is hardly correct to place the
Mors motor in the standard design
class, for the four-cylinder V type is
not common for automobile work.
The difference, however, is more in
details than in essentials, despite the
unusual appearance of the motor.
The cylinders are in pairs, mounted
on an aluminum crank-case, and in-
clined only 30 degrees from the ver-
tical. Usually on a motor of this
type a two-throw crankshaft is em-

ance weights. The advantage of the
method is that it allows the motor to
be fired by a standard type of four-
cylinder, high-tension magneto.

The valves are not in the angle of
the cylinders, but at each end, the ex-
hausts being operated from below
and the automatic intakes mounted
above them in a dome chamber. As
variations of speed are not required
for aeroplane work, the only real ob-
jection to automatic intakes does not
hold here. Owing to the slight in-
clination of the cylinders, it is im-
possible to employ a camshaft within

5 2

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

MORS DISTINCTIVE V-TYPE MOTOR WITH INTEGRAL JACKETS AND LARGE CORE OPENINGS CLOSED BY

ALUMINUM PLATES

BUCHET SIX-CYLINDER MOTOR, WITH CYLINDERS CAST IN PAIRS AND COPPER PLATES SCREWED IN PLACE.

TO FORM WATER JACKETS

AEROPLANE MOTORS

the angle and parallel with the crank-
shaft. In its place are two small
camshafts, one at each end of the
motor, each driven from the crank-
shaft with the usual reduction.

A fly-wheel of large diameter and
comparatively low weight is em-
ployed on the Mors. In a number of
cases, however, the four-cylinder
motors are run without any fly-wheel
other than that provided by the pro-
peller mounted on the main shaft.
This is the case with the Clement
motors, whether used on the firm's
biplanes or the small "Demoiselle"
monoplanes which Clement-Bayard
are now manufacturing. The Mutel
is generally run without a fly-wheel,
and the six-cylinder Buchet is fitted
with one only, if desired, by the
builder of the aeroplane.

Mors is one of the first to fit an
aeroplane motor with a starting
crank and clutch, this latter being of
the band type used on the Mors tour-
ing cars. The Clement Company em-
ploys a starting handle and clutch
for use on its biplanes, but dispenses
with both when the motor is used on
the small monoplane. Voisin, who
has recently brought out a four-cylin-
der motor with concentric valves,
also uses a starting crank, without
clutch and without fly-wheel.

Except the two-cylinder Darracq
and the Clement-Bayard, especially
designed for small monoplanes, all
the motors described are intended to
develop from 45 to 50 horse-power,
this being the most durable power
for the majority of biplane flying
machines. The greatest ratio of
stroke to bore is found on the six-
cylinder Buchet, the dimensions of
which are 100 millimetres by 150
millimetres. The others, all four-
cylinder motors, are: Mutel, 120 by
166; Panhard, no by 140; Clement,

100 by 120; Mors, no by 130, and
Mercedes, 100 by 140.

Attempts to find a suitable reduc-
ing gear between motor and propeller
have not been very successful, if ex-
ception is made of chain drive. The
only French machine of any impor-
tance using a chain is the No. XII.
Bleriot, in which the motor is on the
lower portion of the framework and
the propeller shaft is carried in bear-
ings nearly 4 feet above it. Farman
experimented with a reducing gear in
connection with a Gnome motor, an
internal spur gear being mounted to
the revolving crank-case and meshing
with a pinion on the propeller shaft.
The attempt had to be abandoned,
however, owing to the difficulty of
properly lubricating the gears. For
its new type of biplane the Clement-
Bayard Company transmits from the
motor through a propeller shaft with
universal joint at each end to a gear
set mounted in floating bearings. The
small gear box is carried in an out-
built triangular frame to the rear
of the wings, and is purposely left
with a certain amount of freedom. It
appears to be satisfactory, but a suffi-
ciently long trial has not yet been
made to warrant a definite pronounce-
ment. The Renault firm has em-
ployed very successfully the camshaft
for carrying the propeller, thus ob-
taining a two-to-one reduction with-
out the use of additional gears. The
camshaft is of equal diameter to the
main shaft ; it is mounted in three
bearings, and the timing gears are,
naturally, of a size and strength
altogether unusual in this portion of
the motor. Maurice Farman has
made a number of long flights with
a 7-foot wooden propeller mounted
on the camshaft without any weak-
ness developing in the mechanism of
connections.

THE MECHANICAL HANDLING OF SMALL
MATERIALS

By George Frederick Zimmer, A. M. Inst. C. E.

CONVEYORS of almost all
known constructions are suit-
able for the mechanical han-
dling of such materials as minerals,
coal, coke, stone, clinker, gravel, seeds
or cereals and oil seeds and nuts, but
small materials such as cement, plaster
of Paris, fine sand, and the powders
produced by grinding or crushing of
the first named substances, as well as
other powders such as flour, sugar,
salt and spices, are all more or less
difficult to handle, and indeed only a
limited number of conveyor types can
be used for this purpose, and then
often only with indifferent success.

The reasons why fine material is so
much more difficult to handle than
coarse are various, and one of the
principal is the production of dust at
the slightest agitation, so that a con-
veyor which moves the material by a
stirring, pulling or pushing device
must be enclosed, so as to prevent dust
and loss. Even with conveyors which
perform their functions without this
agitation and in which the material is
carried as it is on a belt conveyor, the
usual high speed at which these con-
veyors work will create dust by the
resistance of the air to the passage of
the material.

There are also other difficulties,
caused by the great difference in the
consistency of fine materials. Some
are of a lively nature and run through
your fingers if you try to get a hand-
ful, and this class of stuff wants a
close-fitting conveyor, say of the push-
plate or worm type, for its handling,
as on a belt conveyor there is a great
tendency for it to run off, unless the
belt is well troughed. Other fine ma-
terials are of just the opposite con-
sistency, almost dead as, for instance,

cement, which if conveyed in a push-
plate conveyor have a tendency to lie
at the bottom of the trough and let the
scrapers travel over the top.

Then, again, there is a difficulty in
handling fine materials on account of
the tendency of fine particles to enter
the working parts of the conveyor,
and if the material is of a sharp and
cutting nature this is one of the prin-
cipal drawbacks, as such parts are
soon destroyed by wear and tear.

It will thus be seen that for the con-
veying by mechanical means of fine
materials the utility of the existing
types of conveyors is considerably re-
stricted. Belt conveyors can be used
if the material can be fed on and off
without causing dust and also if the
belt travels sufficiently slowly. Whilst
all conveyors with agitators can only
be used when running extremely
slowly or when completely covered in,
this is sometimes difficult, particularly
with push-plate conveyors, the gen-
eral construction of which would not
permit of covering without complica-
tions.

The Zimmer conveyor of recipro-
cating type appears to be very suit-
able for handling fine material because
the trough can easily be covered with
a dust-tight lid, and there are no stir-
ring or pushing elements to create
dust or which are subject to wear;
but again there is an objection, and
that is that with this type of conveyor
fine material can only be conveyed
satisfactorily in a very thin layer or
stream, and then preferably on a
slightly downward gradient, so that
here the same objection holds good as
with the belt conveyor. Both can be
made to do the work, but the capacity
is small on the belt convevor on ac-

MECHANICAL HANDLING OF MATERIALS

count of the slow speed, and on the
Zimmer conveyor on account of the
thin feed, so that both these types if
used for fine material would have to
be made rather wider, and, therefore,
more expensively, for capacities which
could be conveyed on smaller con-
veyors if the material was coarse.

As a resume of the foregoing, push-
plate, belt and Zimmer conveyors can-
not be looked upon as the best means
of handling this material under gen-
eral conditions, so there is only the
worm conveyor left. This can be
fitted with a dust-tight lid and inlets
and outlets, and it has a moderate ca-
pacity. It does the work well if the
material is not of a cutting nature,
and is inexpensive in first cost, but for
long distances and large capacities it
presents drawbacks which make it not
much better than the other types. The
driving power consumed is higher
than that of any other conveyor, and
with sharp and cutting stuff the wear
and tear on the ordinary intermediate
bearings, which must of necessity
work surrounded by the material to
be conveyed, is tremendous.

The worm or Archimedean screw is
undoubtedly the oldest type of con-
veyor, and it has been the only ap-
pliance for the mechanical conveying
of such fine materials, and this simple
mechanism, with all its good and bad
points, has been practically unsur-
passed till quite within recent years.

The history of the worm conveyor
is difficult to trace, and it is probable
that the flour miller was the first user
of this labour saver. Whatever pur-
pose the worm conveyor might have
served in earlier times, we know for
certain that a crude form of it was
employed in flour mills over 250 years
ago.

The nature of the worm conveyor is
such that only comparatively fine ma-
terial can be conveyed satisfactorily,
and at the time when this conveyor
was the only appliance for conveying,
all materials consisting of pieces too
large for this type of conveyor were
debarred and had to be moved by hand
labour.

Worm conveyors are of the simplest
possible construction. They consist
of a continuous or broken-bladed
screw fixed to a revolving spindle, and
the whole is mounted in a suitable
trough, so that the revolving screw
propels the material fed in at one end
of the trough to the other end. There
is a small space between the screw and
the trough ; this should be either as
small as possible, or just a little larger
than the size of the largest piece con-
tained in the material to be conveyed,
as if fractions of the material are
larger than the space they become
wedged between the screw and the
trough and thereby may cause stop-
pages.

Well-made worm conveyors, with
well-fitting troughs, i. e., not too tight,
of sufficient rigidity so as not to re-
quire too many intermediate bearings,
with the latter of a design so as not to
obstruct the flow of the material, are
undoubtedly good and serviceable
conveyors for all flour-mill products,
meal, seeds, cereals, cattle food,
crushed seed cakes, etc., material used
in the manufacture of linoleum, such
as cork powder, and sawdust, and as a
matter of fact for all fine materials
which are not gritty or cutting, always
provided the worms are not too long
and are not required for too large a
capacity.

Worm conveyors of the continuous,
paddle or spiral types are made with
diameters of from 4 inches to 18
inches and even more, but those of 12
inches and over, except for short dis-
tances, of, say, not exceeding 40 to 50
feet, and for the materials just men-
tioned, can hardly be called satisfac-
tory. As to the worms of the smaller
diameters and for the same materials,
lengths not exceeding 150 feet for 4-
inch to 8-inch worms, and 100 feet for
9-inch to 10-inch, should be the limit
of their practical utility.

It is true that there are installations
to be found in which these limits are
exceeded, but they cannot be called
economical. In the end it comes to
this, that for really heavy work of this
class there has not been a suitable con-

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 1. CROSS SECTION OF WORM CONVEYOR

BEARING

veyor and worms were used because
there was nothing better.

With reference to the pitch of worm
conveyors, this differs very much, say
from one-quarter of the diameter to a
pitch equal and even greater than the
diameter of the worm.

The pitch is determined by the na-
ture of the material to be conveyed
and by the construction of the worm.
For materials such as cement and
other specifically heavy and cutting
substances a small pitch is most essen-
tial, and for such substances it is most

advantageous to employ continuous or
close-bladed conveyor of a pitch of,
say, equal to half the diameter. The
following table gives the sizes and ca-
pacities of such small pitched con-
tinuous or close-bladed worms.

Close-bladed or continuous worms
are also made with a larger pitch for
lighter material, generally with a pitch
of about two-thirds their diameter.
These answer their purpose well, as
the capacity of these continuous con-
veyors is nearer the theoretical capac-
ity than is the case with open spirals
or with paddle worms. The reason
why closed-spiral worms are not often
made with a pitch more than two-
thirds to three-quarters their diame-
ter is that it is difficult to bend or roll
the blades to a large pitch, but even
then their relatively large capacity
bring these up in capacity to nearly
that of paddle and open spirals of a
larger pitch.

The driving power required for
worm conveyors depends mostly upon
the weight of the material to be moved
and the distance to which it has to be
conveyed. The type of the worm, its
diameter and speed, enter to a smaller
degree into the calculation. It will,
therefore, be a sufficient guide to give
two tables, one for light and one for
heavy materials, from which the ap-

Diameter of worm in inches

14 16 18

Pitch of worm in inches

41/2

7 8 9

Outer diameter of hollow spindle in ins.

l3/s

ll5/u

lis/n

2Vi»

2Vl«

2Vte

215/1. 2"/l6 2"

Diameter of internal bearings and end

gudgeons in inches

11/2

tyi

21/2 21/2 »/>

Revolutions per minute

130

120-

100

80 70 60

Capacity in cubic feet per hour

180

250

300

600

900 1000 1300

FIG. lA. LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF WORM CONVEYOR BEARING

MECHANICAL HANDLING OF MATERIALS

TABLE GIVING APPROXIMATE HORSE-POWER REQUIRED TO DRIVE A WORM
CONVEYOR FOR GRAIN OR OTHER EIGHT MATERIAL

Tons

Lengt

1 Of COIH

eyor in Fe

et.

100

0.19

0.38

0.57

0.76

0.95

1.14

1.33

1.52

1.71

1.90

0.38

0.76

1.14

1.52

1.90

2.28

2.66

3.04

3.42

3.80

0.57

1.14

1.71

2.28

2.85

3.42

3.99

4.56

5.13

5.70

0.76

1.52

2.28

3.04

3.80

4.56

5.32

6. OS

6.84

7.60

0.95

1.90

2.85

3.80

4.75

5.70

6.65

7.60

8.55

9.50

1.14

2.28

3.42

4.56

5.70

6.84

7.98

9.12

10.26

11.40

1.33

2.66

3.99

5.32

6.65

7.98

9.31

10.64

11.97

13.30

1.52

3.04

4.56

6.08

7.60

9.12

10.64

12.16

13.68

15.20

1.71

3.42

5.13

6.84

8.55

10.26

11.97

13.68

15.39

17.10

1.90

2.80

5.70

7.60

9.50

11.40

13.30

15.20

17.10

19.00

FIG. 2. DUSTPROOF CONVEYOR BEARING MADE BY THE CONVEYOR & ELEVATOR CO., ACCRINGTON, ENGLAND

proximate horsepower can be found.
Worm conveyors for fine cement
and similar materials are frequently
built on somewhat different lines, and
the tendency is to use more particu-
larly the continuous or closed spiral.
The principal differences are the use
of a rather larger trough, for instance,
an n-inch trough for a io-inch worm.
This allows of a y2-'mch space be-
tween the movable worm and the sta-
tionary trough, so that the cement in
the worm will form its own trough
within the iron trough, and that there

is no wear on the trough itself at all.
This arrangement causes, however,
more wear on the periphery of the
worm spiral, which thereby gradually
becomes smaller in diameter.

In one of the largest cement works
on the lower Thames, where miles of
these worms are in use, the practice is
as follows : Ten-inch continuous
worms fitted in n-inch troughs with
the bearings io feet apart and with a
pitch of 7 inches and a speed of 8o
revolutions. These worms convey J,
14 and sometimes even 21 tons of fine

TABLE GIVING THE APPROXIMATE HORSE-POWER REOUIRED TO DRIVE A WORM
CONVEYOR .FOR HEAVY MATERIAL

Tons

Leng

th of Conv

evor in Feet.

per Hour.

100

0.33

0.66

0.99

1.32

1.65

1.98

2.31

2.64

2.97

3.30

0.66

1.32

1.98

2.64

3.30

3.96

4.62

5.28

5.94

6.60

0.99

1.98

2.97

3.96

4.95

5.94

6.93

7.92

8.91

9.90

1.32

2.64

3.96

5.28

6.60

7.92

9.24

10.56

11.88

13.20

1.65

3.30

4.95

6.60

8.25

9.90

11.55

12.40

14.85

16.50

1.98

3.96

5.94

7.92

9.90

12.28

13.86

15.84

17.82

19.80

2.31

4.62

6.93

9.24

11.55

13.86

16.17

18.48

20.79

23.10

2.64

5.28

7.92

10.56

13.20

15.84

18.48

21.12

23.76

26.40

2.97

5.94

9.81

11.88

14.85

17.82

20.79

23.76

26.73

29.70

3.30

6.60

9.90

13.20

16.50

19.80

23.10

26.40

29.70

33.00

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 3. SUESS CONVEYOR, 250 FEET LONG, CONVEYING FINE CEMENT

TABLE GIVING DIAMETER, PITCH AND CAPACITY OF THE CONTINUOUS OR CLOSE-
BLADED WORM OF THE MORE USUAL CONSTRUCTION

Diameter

of Internal

Diameter

Pitch

Outer Diameter

Bearings and

Capacity

Length

of Worm

of Hollow Spindle

End Gudgeons

Revolutions

in Cubic Feet

Between

in Inches.

per Minute.

per Hour.

Bearings.

1 S/l6

130

70]

iy8

l'/(

120

100 1

IV 8

l1/ 2

120

175 1

Sfeet

IV 8

IV 2

110

250 J

i'/i

IV i

100

3001

2Vs

100

400 I

2'/i

500 (

10 feet

2Vs

650 J

2V 8

850->

215/16

2V2

1,000

21S/l6

2V2

1,200 I

2IV,6

2 V2

1,350 [

12 feet

2i.y,6

2 V2

1,550

2"/l6

2V2

LSOO-1

cement per hour. As these conveyors
are all driven by electric motors the
actual power consumed can easily be
ascertained, and from a number of
readings the average power was I
brake-horsepower for every 35 feet of
conveyor when handling 7 tons of
cement.

The intermediate bearings are simi-
lar to Fig. 1, from which it will be

seen that the space between the differ-
ent sections of the 10-inch worm is
very" small, only i}A inches; this is a
great advantage, as the break of the
blades at the junction is very small,
which prevents accumulations. These
bearings have also the further advan-
tage that the working portions are
quite away from the injurious influ-
ence of the cement.

MECHANICAL HANDLING OF MATERIALS

TABLE GIVING DIAMETER, PITCH AND CAPACITY OF THE OPEN-BLADED OR SPIRAL
CONVEYOR FOR HEAVY, AS WELL AS FOR LIGHT, WORK

Speed

Capacity

Speed

Capacity

for Heavy*

for Heavy

for Lightf

for Light

Diameter

Pitch

Diameter

Section

Materials,

Materials

Materials.

Materials

of Spiral

of Solid Shaft.

of Spiral.

Revolutions

in Cubic Feet

Revolutions

in Cubic Feet

n Inches.

in Inches.

Inches.

per Minute.

per Hour.

per Minute.

per Hour.

V/4-V/2

IV4 xVie

100

130

l'A

11/2 X3/l6

120

150

1V2-2

Wt x v 4

230

110

300

2 -2V 2

21/4 X 1/ 4

350

100

500

2 -21/2

21/4 X 1/ 4

550

800

21/2-3

21/2 X V 4

700

1,100

2V2-3

3 X1/ 4

950

1,400

2V2-3

31/2 X V 4

1,100

1,700

21/2-3

31/2 X 1/ 4

1,300

1,900

3 -31/2

31/2 X 1/ 4

1,500

2,100

3 -31/2

3V2 X V 4

1,600

2,300

TABLE GIVING DIAMETER AND CAPACITY OF PADDLE WORMS

Diameter of

Outer

Intermediate

Speed

Capacity

Speed

Capacity

Diameter

Bearings

Diameter

for Heavy*

for Heavy

for Lightf

for Light

Diameter

Pitch

of Hollow

and End

of Shank

IV at- rials.

Materials.

of Worm.

of Wcrm.

Spirdle.

Gudg"o-s.

of Blade.

Revolutions

in Cubic Feet

Revolutions

in Cubic Fe

Inches.

per Minute.

per Hour.

per Minute.

per Minute

iy>

Vie

120

IV 8

IV4

120

iVlS

IV2

3/8

110

170

P'/ie

IV2

175

110

260

llf/l6

lVs

220

100

330

2 -Vie

13A

320

100

470

2Vs

1/2

400

600

2V4

2i/4

1/2

■ 60

500

750

2»/l6

2i/2

5/8

600

900

2»/n

21/2

1,000

1,300

31/2

1,350

1,800

31/2

5/a

* Heavy materials include fine coal, cement, sand, ground minerals, fine gravel, plaster of Paris, oxide
of iron, etc.

t Light materials include grain, seeds, sugar, flour, meal, bran, ice, sawdust, rice, etc.

BIG. 4. PERSPECTIVE VIEW AND PART SECTION OF SUESS TUBE CONVEYOR

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Fig. 2 is a similar type of bearing,
for which it is claimed that it is per-
fectly dustproof. It is the design of
the Conveyor & Elevator Company, of
Accrington. These bearings are lu-
bricated by a viscous grease which is
forced right through the bearing sur-
faces, so that the grease forms a dust
collar round the surfaces a a.

The first step in the direction to
provide a more economical and serv-
iceable conveyor for fine material has
been the introduction of the tubular
or internal worm. This consists of a
cylindrical tube with a continuous
spiral fitted to its inner periphery.

pulsion, which is by gravity. It is thus
obvious that the greater the pitch of
the screw the greater the tendency of
the material to cling to the inside of
the tube, which tendency is still
further encouraged when the centrif-
ugal force begins to exert itself, so
that a point is reached where the ma-
terial is carried too far up the side of
the tube, and there is then a tendency
for it not to slide forward in its ap-
pointed channel but to fall, more than
slide, back from its higher position,
and so some of the material may fall
back into the previous thread of the
screw, which reduces the capacity

FIGS. 5 AND 6. CROSS AND LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF SUESS TUBE CONVEYOR

When at work it revolves bodily round
an imaginary axis, being supported
outside by suitable rollers.

The conveying action is not, as with
the ordinary worm, a pushing for-
ward, but the material is propelled by
gravity, inasmuch as through the
revolution of the tube the material
contained in it is carried up the side in
the direction of the revolution until it
is compelled to fall back, when it is
guided in a slightly forward direc-
tion by the spiral attached to the in-
side of the tube.

The capacity of this tube conveyor
is not very large, as the pitch of the
screw must be smaller than with most
ordinary worms, say about one-third
of the inner diameter of the tube, and
the number of revolutions is also lim-
ited, as the centrifugal force, which
comes into action as soon as the speed
limit is exceeded, counteracts the pro-

more and more as the speed is in-
creased, and eventually the centrif-
ugal force being greater than the
gravity, the material revolves round
and round on the inner periphery of
the tube and conveying ceases alto-
gether.

The speed at which tube conveyors
should run may therefore be slightly
slower for a larger pitch of the screw
and vice versa. The following table
gives the most suitable pitch and
speed, also the capacity of cylindrical
tube conveyors of different diameters.

A decided improvement on the tube
conveyor is the Suess conveyor. It
consists of a tube of rectangular sec-
tion made either of sheet steel or
wood. To the four inner sides of this
tube are attached oblique blades form-
ing an unbroken sequence of oblique
channels on each side and for the
whole length of the conveyor. These

MECHANICAL HANDLING OF MATERIALS

Most

Most Suitable

Diameter

Suitable

Speed Rev-

Capacity

of Tube

Pitch

olutions

Cul

ic Feet

in Inches.

per Minute.

per

Hour.

100

200

300

350

550

700

900

35 •

1,000

1,100

blades do not extend across the whole
sides of the tube, but are only half as
wide as the sides, so as to keep four
longitudinal channels quite unob-
structed by blades in the corners of the
tube. For example, a 12-inch tube
(inside measurement) has blades on
each side 6 inches wide, so as to leave
a space of 3 x 3 inches in each corner

to make such a worm of the ordinary
continuous type, which can not be
done on account of the difficulty and
expense to bend the blades to such a
pitch, and for that reason a square
tube like the Suess has a much larger
capacity than a round cylinder of the
same diameter.

With the Suess conveyor a single
internal screw formed of four blades
would not give a very positive result,
as only part of the material would fol-
low the oblique path, and in order to
get the highest efficiency, the oblique
blades are placed at such a distance
apar": as to form a five-fold or five-
threaded screw, so that practically

FIG. 7. ENCLOSED CONVEYOR OUTLET

FIG. 8. END OUTLET

and for the whole length of the con-
veyor.

When- at work, the action is as fol-
lows, supposing the whole of the ma-
terial in the conveyor rests all along
one of the corners. As this corner
slowly moves upwards, the under side
of the tube changes its horizontal po-
sition for a slanting one, and as soon
as the angle is sufficiently steep the
whole of the contents of the corner is
forced by the law of gravity to slide
across the oblique channels into the
next corner, and in doing this it
travels forward by the pitch of the
channels or blades. This process re-
peats itself four times in every revolu-
tion. The very considerable slope of
45 degrees can be given to the blades,
so that with each quarter revolution
in a 12-inch tube the material moves
theoretically 6 inches forward, or 2
feet with every revolution. This is
practically equal to a 12-inch worm
with a 24-inch pitch, if it was possible

every particle is forced forward in its
appointed channel.

The conveyor is made in lengths of
from 15 to 20 feet and joined together
with flanges. These are turned on the
face and are used as supports for the
conveyor, which rests on a series of
pairs of rollers. The rollers are pro-
vided with flanges so as to prevent end
movement. There is also a flexible
packing ring between each pair of
couplings, so that a slight variation
from the straight line in the erection
is not detrimental.

The driving pulley is made in
halves with a square opening to fit the
square tube, and this can be attached
at any point in the length of the con-
veyor, whichever may be most con-
veniently situated in relation to the
driving power.

Conveyors of this design have been
built and are successfully at work in
lengths of 250 feet. Fig. 3 shows
such a conveyor in a cement works.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

y^/^-^^s.

■& \

Rpt*1 Pi

!i pdi

V '■''"■■

K i!

FIG. 9. INTERMEDIATE INLET

As this tube conveyor is very rigid, it
can also be used for transmitting a
limited amount of power, so that at
the extreme end, or in any desired po-
sition, power may be taken off by fix-
ing a pulley, similar to the main driv-
ing pulley, concentrically on to the
tube, for driving small auxiliary con-
veyors, or even elevators. This is
sometimes of great convenience.

Fig. 4 represents a perspective view
and- part section of such a conveyor,
and Figs. 5 and 6 show cross and
longitudinal sections of the same. The
illustrations show a wooden tube with
metal channels, d represents the ob-
lique blades, e e1 e2 e3 show the longi-
tudinal channels in the four corners
as described above. The spaces / / can
be covered over with sheet iron, g
is the filling' apparatus which revolves
with the tube and has lifters which
scoop up the material fed into the
fixed inlet i and deliver it into the con-
veyor tube, k and kx show the slope
at which the material is delivered into
the tube, b are the ring supports to
be used when further supports are
desirable in addition to, or instead of,
the flange coupling supports. * These
ring supports b are also employed in
such positions where at times a por-

FIG. 10. INTERMEDIATE OUTLET

tion of the conveyor has to be thrown
out of work. For instance, if a con-
veyor of 100 feet total length has to
deliver for a lengthy period at a point
50 feet from the feed end, half the
conveyor can be disconnected simply
by taking the four bolts out of the
nearest coupling, and in order to do so
a ring b should be near to such a point
so as to carry the tube ends, c are the
rollers on which the ring b or the
flange coupling are supported.

The delivery at the opposite end can
be either open, so that the material
simply drops out, or it can be enclosed,
which is preferable, so as to prevent
dust. Such an enclosed end outlet, as
well as intermediate inlets and outlets,
are shown in Figs. 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11.
These intermediate inlets and outlets
are easily understood from the illus-
trations, the former having four
lifters which collect and deliver into
the tube any material fed into the in-
let, and yet when there is no material
added at any of these intermediate in-
lets the flow of the material passing
by is not obstructed.

The intermediate outlet is a little
more complicated, as it contains a
loose piece of the tube with its chan-
nels, which must be removed before it

FIG. 11. END IN'LET

MECHANICAL HANDLING OF MATERIALS

will act as an outlet, but the change
can be effected in a very few minutes.
The loose piece is shown in the illus-
tration.

It will thus be seen that the Suess
tube conveyor can be fed from any
number of points, and that the ma-
terial can be withdrawn at any con-
venient point or points. It is there-

degrees to their base at the side of the
tube.

Size

Number.

k I m

7 \\ 2£ 20 7 20 20 6 18 7 16 6
9* 2'i 3 20 7 20 20 8 20 7 16 6i
12" 3 3f 24 8 24 24 10 24 8 18 7

The following table gives the capac-
ity of the Suess conveyor for the

FIG. 12. SUESS CONVEYOR, SHOWING METHOD OF DRIVING BY MEANS OF GUIDE PULLEYS

fore most useful, for instance, for
feeding rows of silos or bins either
one at a time or simultaneously. Fig.
12 shows another Suess conveyor
driven by a pair of jockey pulleys.

The lettering of Figs. 7 to 11 corre-
spond with the dimensions given in
the table for Suess conveyors of the
three principal sizes in inches ; the let-
ter c in the table represents the pitch
of the oblique blades, which stand at
an angle of 45 degrees to the axis of
the conveyor and at an angle of 75

three sizes in tons per hour of Port-
land cement, at the different speeds :

TABLE GIVING CAPACITY OF SUESS TUBE
CONVEYOR.
Revolutions

per Capacity in Tons of Portland Cement per Hr

Minute. No. 1 No. 2 No. 3.

10 1.2 5.4 8.37

15 2.04 7.2 12.555

20 2.88 9. 16.74

25 3.72 10.8 20.925

30 4.56 12.6 25.11

35 5.4 14.4 29.295

40 6.24 16.2 33.48

45 7. OS 18.

50 7.92 19.8

55 8.76 ....

60 9.6

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN SHIPBUILDING

By Benjamin Taylor

THE production of new vessels
in the world in 1909 was 2,605
ships, of 2,287,752 tons and
2,616,752 I. H. P. This, comparing
with 2,883 vessels, 2,275,354 tons and
2,131,214 I. H. P. in 1908, shows so
small an increase in tonnage that we
may call it stationary. The product
of the United Kingdom in 1909 was
1,181,528 tons, of the British Colonies
6,419 tons, and of foreign countries
1,088,799 tons. These figures are
taken from makers' returns and they
differ from Lloyd's.

Lloyd's Register of British and
Foreign Shipping reports that during
1909, exclusive of warships, 526 ves-
sels, of 991,066 tons, were launched
in the United Kingdom. The war-
ships launched at Government and
private yards numbered 42, and were
of 126,230 tons displacement, making
a total for the year of 568 vessels
of 1,117,296 tons. The output of
mercantile tonnage shows an increase
of 61,397 tons on that of the previ-
ous year ; but, with the exception of
that of 190S, it is the lowest recorded
by the society for twelve years. Prac-
tically the whole of the tonnage was
of steel, and 98^ per cent, was
steam. Of the total, 75 3-5 per cent,
was for United Kingdom registry,
and the net increase on the United
Kingdom tonnage as a result of the
year's additions and deductions was
about 27,000 tons. The smallness of
the increase as compared with previ-
ous years is accounted for by the
breaking up of a large amount of
old tonnage. There was launched for
other countries 241,845 tons of new
shipping- — about 24 3-5 per cent, of the
total, as compared with 40 per cent, in
1908 and 34 per cent, in 1907. British

colonies, as in 1908, provided the
largest amount of work for home
yards, 70 vessels, of 60,027 tons, hav-
ing been launched for colonial own-
ers. The Glasgow district occupies
first place among the principal ship-
building centres of the country, show-
ing an output of 204,451 tons. Then
follow Newcastle, Greenock, Sunder-
land, Belfast, Middlesbrough and
Hartlepool in this order. Among
other countries, the United States
is first, with 209,604 tons ; Germany
second, with 128,696 tons; Holland
third, with 59,106 tons, with Japan,
France and Italy following in this
order. The returns show a consid-
erable decrease as compared with
1908 in the case of nearly every
country. This is especially noticeable
in France (over 49 per cent.), Ger-
many (nearly 40 per cent.), and the
United States (over 31 per cent.).
On the other hand, the tonnage
launched in the United Kingdom
shows an advance of 61,397 t°ns (or
6.6 per cent.) on the output for 1908.
Of the tonnage launched, the United
Kingdom acquired nearly 47 per cent.
Of the total merchant tonnage out-
put of the world during 1909, nearly
62 per cent, was launched in the
United Kingdom ; but, if only sea-
going merchant steamers of 3,000
tons gross and upwards be taken into
account, out of the total of 180 such
steamers of 892,078 tons launched in
the world nearly 75 per cent, of the
tonnage has been launched in the
United Kingdom. The total output
of the world during 1909 (exclusive
of warships) was, according to
Lloyd's, 1,602,057 tons (1, 537,570
steam and 64,487 sail), and the net
increase of the world's mercantile

RECENT SHIPBUILDING DEVELOPMENTS

tonnage at the end of 1909 was about
734,000 tons. Sailing tonnage has
been reduced by 199,000 tons, while
steam tonnage has increased by 933,-
000 tons. Of the vessels launched
during 1909, 398, of 790,541 tons
(including 63 vessels of 160,760 tons
launched abroad), were built under
the society's inspection with a view
to classification in Lloyd's Register.

It is to be noted, however, that
Lloyd's tables retain vessels as under
construction so long as they remain
in builders' hands, but they do not
include unclassed vessels under 100
tons each.

As to the volume of the work pro-
duced, it is worthy of note that, in
spite of keen competition, the Clyde
remains the only compact British dis-
trict that takes a place above any
other country. It produced a great
deal more tonnage than either the
United States or Germany, more than
double that of the Tyne or of any
foreign country except the two
already referred to, and only some
40,500 tons short of the output of
the whole Northeast Coast of Eng-
land. In the making of marine en-
gines of the most powerful type the
Clyde also takes first place, with a
total of 200,000 indicated horse-power
higher than the next best figures,
viz., those of Germany. The follow-
ing were the leading districts :

Vessels Tons I. H. P.

The Clyde 354 403,187 610,985

United States 201 281,271 213,770

Germany 289 277,155 411,647

The Tyne 112 199,307 262,996

Holland 413 174,920 72,901

France 40 132,877 186,860

(We take these figures and many of those which

follow from the annual statistics of "The Glasgow
Herald.")

The Liverpool Underwriters' As-
sociation report that the number and
gross tonnage of vessels lost during
December were as follows : British,
4 sail, of 7,338 tons, and 7 steam, of
24,044 tons; foreign, 6 sail, of 7,278
tons, and 14 steam, of 23,871 tons —
a grand total of 31 vessels of 62,531
tons, as compared with 17 vessels of
35,104 tons in December, 1908, and
24 of 39,631 tons in December, 1907.
The following table shows the num-

1-5

ber and tonnage of vessels lost dur-
ing each of the past three years :

BRITISH

, 1909— ,

Number Tons

Sail 19 30,460

Steam 60 174,967

Totals 79 205,427

, 1908 ,

Number Tons

Sail 22 33,663

Steam 74 185,609

Totals 96 219,272

, 1907 ,

Number Tons

Sail 20 33,386

Steam 61 150,960

Totals 81 184,346

OTHER COUNTRIES

, —1909 >

Number Tons

Sail 66 76,787

Steam 105 195,734

Totals 161 272,521

Grand totals 240 477,948

, 1908 ,

Number Tons

Sail 72 89,319

Steam 107 200,922

Totals 179 290,241

Grand totals 275 509,513

, 1907 v

Number Tons

Sail 82 94,145

Steam 105 219,721

Totals 187 313,866

Grand totals 268 498,212

Of the British ships lost during
the year, 19 sailing vessels were total
losses, 140 partial losses, 60 steam-
ers total losses, 2,378 partial losses ;
and of the foreign vessels, 56 sailers
were total losses, 298 partial losses,
105 steamers total losses and 2,635
partial losses — a total of 240 total
losses and 5,451 partial losses, and a
grand total of 5,691 losses, as com-
pared with 5,949 in 1908, 6,131 in
1907, and 5,557 in 1906.

This leaves a wide margin for pro-
duction, but Lloyd's figures do not
include the tonnage broken up as
obsolete.

The returns from the English ship-
building districts show a condition
very different from that at the end
of 1908. There has not been any-
thing like the revival in trade that is
necessary to bring the industry back
to normal, but there has been a grati-
fying recovery from the depression

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

which ran throughout 1908. There
is a further decrease of tonnage on
the Tyne — from 336,000 in 1907,
210,000 in 1908, and now to 199,-
000 — but the Wear has advanced
from 85,000 to 132,000, the Tees and
Hartlepool from 96,000 to 122,000,
the Mersey from 39,000 to 85,000,
and the Humber from 21,000 to 24,-
000. There is a slight decrease in the
English Channel district, making its
output practically the same as that
of 1907. The net increase is 19 ves-
sels, 115,500 tons, and 194,200 indi-
cated horse-power. The improving
condition on the Wear and Tees is
gratifying, as these districts were hit
more badly by the depression than
any others. They depend almost en-
tirely on the building of cargo steam-
ers. The advance of nearly 200,000
indicated horse-power marine engines
constructed in the United Kingdom
may be traced to the Tyne, Barrow
and Birkenhead. The increase of
84,000 on the Tyne will be found in
the destroyers built by Palmer's Com-
pany, the cruiser turbines by the
Wallsend Slipway Company, the
warship work done by the Parsons
Company, and the increased number
of steamers built at their own yard
which Messrs. Swan, Hunter & Wig-
ham Richardson have engined. At
Barrow and Birkenhead warship ma-
chinery is also the great feature of
the engineering returns.

The following shows the line, with
output :

, 1909 ,

Vessels Tons I. H. P.

The Tyne 132 199,307 262,996

The Wear 57 132,633 95,556

Tees and Hartlepool . 46 122,733 69,025

Mersey to Solway 92 85,228 164,950

Royal Dockyards 6 46,612

The Humber 72 24,414 35,375

English Channel 104 9,920 68,101

The Thames 96 7,053 11,618

Bristol Channel . '. 57 5,399 762

Totals 642 633,299 708,382

, 1908 ,

Vessels Tons I. H. P.

The Tyne 115 210,110 178

The Wear 40 85,851 82

Tees and Hartlepool .. . 38 98,061 60

Mersey and Solway. . . . 95 39,232 68

Royal Dockyards .... 5 43,060

The Humber 98 21,714 27

Inglish Channel 106 10,237 66

The Thames 112 9,881 23

Bristol Channel 14 2,106

Totals 623 517,752 614

In spite of hopes of improving
trade would tell on tonnage statistics
all over the country, the Tyne failed
to improve on its output for 1908,
and the tonnage for that year was a
good deal less than that of 1907.
Messrs. Swan, Hunter & Wigham
Richardson once more lead the dis-
trict with an output of 71,000 tons
gross — somewhat less than their to-
tal for 1908, but sufficient to give
them second place for the world in
the year. In the tonnage of the dis-
trict there are a cruiser, two scouts
and six torpedo-boat destroyers, while
there is now a large amount of naval
work on hand. In engineering, the
Wallsend Slipway Company lead,
with 55,800 indicated horse-power,
included in which are turbines for a
cruiser built by the Armstrong Com-
pany at Elswick. The Parsons Com-
pany constructed only warship tur-
bines durng the year, for the Bra-
zilian scouts built at Elswick and the
Battleship St. Vincent, built at Ports-
mouth.

On the Wear the majority of the
builders did a good deal better last
year than in 1908, though there seems
to be a falling off in the demand for
turret steamers. Messrs. Doxford
launched the self -discharging collier
Emma Sauber, which is equipped
with belt-discharging appliances to
deliver coal into barges. An inter-
esting vessel is the Monotoria, built
by Messrs. Osbourne, Graham & Co.
on a new principle of longitudinally
grooved sides, which enable the ves-
sel to steam at a given speed with
less horse-power than would other-
wise have been required. The Wear
tonnage for the year showed a marked
improvement over that of 1908,
which, however, was less than a third
of the year before. The prospects
are improving to such an extent that
Messrs. Laing's yard is being re-
opened. Quite a number of orders
were booked in the autumn and win-
ter, and most of the yards are now
busy.

The anticipations of a revival
which was held on the Clyde at the

RECENT SHIPBUILDING DEVELOPMENTS

beginning of 1909 have not been
quite realized, but there has been
enough actual improvement to show
that these anticipations were based
on knowledge of trade and on shrewd
forecasting of the future. Most of
the vessels then on the stocks have
been launched, and many other or-
ders have passed into actual work; a
new situation has been created. The
position is now very encouraging —
more than it was at this time last
year. The new year opened in cir-
cumstances to justify the belief that
the amount of tonnage in the yards
will continue to increase this year.

The warship building just now is
immensely interesting. The Clyde
obtained only one of the "contingent"
battleships, but it received a large
share of the work which the Ad-
miralty allocated during last year. A
battleship went to Beardmores, who
are completing the second class
cruiser Gloucester and laying down
an improved sister-ship. At Clyde-
bank Messrs. John Brown & Co.
launched three of six destroyers, and
have other three, as well as the
cruiser Bristol, on hand. At Fair-
field the cruiser Glasgow is complet-
ing, one destroyer has been launched,
and there are five to come for the
home Government and two for the
Commonwealth of Australia. The
London & Glasgow Shipbuilding
Company have on hand the destroyer
Rattlesnake and an improved Bristol
cruiser. The engines for the former
have been made by Messrs. Yarrow
& Co., and those for the latter will
be made by Messrs. John Brown &
Co. A destroyer was placed with
Messrs. A. & J. Inglis & Co. Messrs.
Yarrow & Co. have two of ten Bra-
zilian destroyers and some other
light craft on hand. At Dumbarton
Messrs. Denny & Bros, have the
large destroyer Maori, and have other
three still to complete, as well as one
for Australia. At Greenock Scotts'
Company are making progress with
the battleship Colossus, placed with
them last summer.

At the beginning of this year there

were not many merchant vessels of
importance building on the Clyde.
The Fairfield Company had only de-
stroyers on the stocks ; the London
& Glasgow Company had no mer-
cantile work; at Pointhouse Messrs.
Inglis had a MacBrayne line steamer,
an Italian railway steamer, and a
passenger steamer for Australia.
Messrs. D. & W. Henderson & Co.
had three vessels, each of 7,000 tons ;
Messrs. Mackie & Thomson two
trawlers and one Booth Line steamer ;
Messrs. Alexander Stephen & Sons,
three steamers of 19,000 tons aggre-
gate ; Messrs. Barclay, Curie & Co.,
three ; Messrs. Charles Connell &
Co., a Donaldson liner and one
other vessel, and Messrs. John Brown
& Co., Harwich and Hook of Holland
boat and a large steam yacht. At
Renfrew Messrs. Lobnitz & Co. had
a rock-cutter, a large hopper barge,
a stern-wheeler, a gold-dredger, and
a small barge, and Messrs. Wm.
Simons & Co. two dredgers. Messrs.
Napier & Miller, Old Kilpatrick,
had four steamers of about 11,600
tons. At Dumbarton Messrs. Denny
had on hand a steamer for the New
Zealand Shipping Company and a
large vessel for Messrs. P. Hender-
son & Co., and Messrs. McMillan &
Son had two on the stocks and two
to lay down, making altogether for
the town a total of about 34,000
tons. Greenock and Port-Glasgow
had orders representing over 100,000
tons, but the work was not well dis-
tributed, as, while several of the
shipbuilding firms have well-occu-
pied berths, others are but sparsely
served. Until a recent order for a
P. & O. steamer, Messrs. Caird &
Co.'s three yards were empty. H.
M. S. Colossus was all the work
in progress in the yard of Scotts'
Company. The busiest firms within
the radius are Messrs. Russell & Co.
and Messrs. William Hamilton &
Co., more than half of the above
estimated tonnage being in these
two yards, and in both cases the
vessels are cargo steamers for serv-
ice in various parts of the world.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Quite a number building by the lat-
ter firms are on the Isherwood sys-
tem. Altogether the work on hand
on the Clyde amounted at the begin-
ning of the year to about 250,000
tons of merchant shipping and 73,000
tons of warships, a total of 323,000
tons, as compared with a little over
300,000 at the ^nd of last year. But
since January 1, a good many new
orders have been booked, and many
are still coming in.

A feature of recent development of
the destroyer is that while Britain in-
clines to heavier vessels of large dis-
placement and moderate speed, other
Naval Powers are building light ves-
sels of comparatively small displace-
ment and high speed. Britain thinks
more of sea-going qualities and
radius of action than others do. In
rough seawork 27-knot destroyers
have proved faster than the lighter
30-knot vessels. We now have dis-
placements of 1,100 tons, while the
biggest German craft are no more
than 700 tons displacement, with
speeds of over 30 knots. The same
tendency to weight is not seen in
the Australian destroyers now on the
stocks, but weight is the safe side on
which to err, if it is not deterrent
to speed. In the matter of propel-
ling machinery the destroyer is in a
transition stage. There are de-
stroyers building with different kinds
of turbines, and some with recipro-
cating engines. A British destroyer
is to be propelled by Curtis tur-
bines. In Germany the Parsons, the
Curtis, the Melms and Pfenninger,
and the Zoelly are to be found in
vessels of the type ; and there are
French vessels with the Parsons, the
Rateau, the Schneider-Zoelly, the
Briquet, and a combination system.
In one case Parsons turbines drive
wing shafts, and a triple-expansion
engine is on a centre shaft for cruis-
ing speeds. The submarine, again,
is developing in size, radius of ac-
tion and safety. British vessels now
can go about anywhere and make
quite long voyages on the coast.

A recent development is in com-

mercial motor vessels — especially in>
the marine-motor fishing fleets. The
total number of auxiliary powered
drifters pursuing the industry in the
North Sea a year ago amounted to a
dozen, while now there are over 50=
craft of this type, all fitted with heavy-
oil, internal-combustion engines of
35 to 75 brake-horsepower. The
majority of the engines are of
the Gardner make, which was first
in the field, but Kelvin, Beardmore,
Thornycroft, Alpha, Fairbanks and'
Wear engines are also now in serv-
ice. The steam drifter was intro-
duced some six or seven years ago'
into Scottish waters in great num-
bers, practically putting the sailing
lugger out of the market. At that
time many owners of luggers sold
them for a trifle or hauled them up,
and, clubbing together, pursued the
fishing with the modern steam-
drifter. Two years ago scores of
good, serviceable luggers were upon
the Scottish shore for good. With
the introduction of the internal-com-
bustion heavy-oil engine, however,
conditions assumed a different aspect.
It was soon seen that the old sailer,
fitted with a 50 brake-horsepower in-
stallation, giving a calm-water speed
of 7 knots, was much more profitable
to run than a steam-propelled boat. In
general commercial motor craft, last
year also produced a number of
barges, tugs, ferries, pilot-cutters,
harbour service launches, lifeboats,,
etc., etc., all craft of under 70 feet
in length, in which marine motor in-
stallations are fitted. Boats have
been built for use in all climates and
under all conditions, and whether for
African rivers or water-carrying
barges for harbour use, or high-
speed pinnaces, the internal-com-
bustion engine is taking the place
of the reciprocating machinery.

There were, it may be remarked,
no important developments during
1909 in the application of the steam
turbine to marine propulsion, which
certainly is capable of improvement,
and the past year was a period of
marking time, showing that the en-

RECENT SHIPBUILDING DEVELOPMENTS

gineering world is not sure what the
next development is to be — whether
the recipro-turbine combination is to
prove still further its economy and
efficiency, or whether it and the sys-
tems more generally used are to be
superseded by a turbo-electric or
other form of propulsion. It is now
more than a dozen years since the
problem of ship propulsion by steam
turbines was solved, and by the
efforts of the Hon. Charles A. Par-
sons the turbine was given a place
along with the reciprocating engine
as a prime mover for marine pur-
poses. The progress made during
that period has been very great, but
we have now reached a time when
we may assume that the immediate
future will hold either further prog-
ress along the lines of the past or
some radical development that will
•open a new chapter in turbine en-
gineering.

The first Atlantic liner to be pro-
pelled by steam turbines was the
Allan Line steamer Victorian, built
and engined by Messrs. Workman,
Clark & Co., Belfast, and launched
in August, 1904. This vessel was
soon followed by the Allan liner
Virginian and by the Cunard liner
Carmania. In 1903, the Cunard
Company entered into an agreement
with the British Government to build
two large, high-speed steamships.
The directors appointed a commis-
sion to report on the best means of
propelling these vessels. Mr. James
Bain, the marine superintendent of
the Cunard Company, was chairman
of this commission, which, after pro-
longed consideration, reported in
favour of turbines. The Cunard
Company, adopting the commission's
recommendation, placed orders for
two quadruple-screw turbine-propelled
steamships of 760 feet length and
about 70,000 horse-power — one, the
Lusitania — to be built and engined
by Messrs. John Brown & Co., Ltd.,
on the Clyde ; and the Mauretania,
to be built on the Tyne by Messrs.
Swan, Hunter & Wigham Richard-
son, Ltd., and engined by the Wall-

send Slipway & Engineering Com-
pany, Ltd. About the time when
work was commenced on the con-
struction of the Lusitania and Mau-
retania, the Admiralty decided on
turbines for the propulsion of the
new battleship Dreadnought and the
new cruisers of the Invincible class,
so that within nine years of the suc-
cess of the Turbinia the turbine was
adopted for the largest war and
merchant ships in the world.

Ever since the success of the
Turbinia there has been much con-
troversy as to the relative merits of
reciprocating and turbine-propelled
ships. The extent to which the tur-
bine will be employed in the future
remains an open question, but recent
developments give some idea of what
may be expected. The divergence
of views among engineers and ship-
ping men is less pronounced now
than formerly. The turbine is gen-
erally admitted to be preferable for
warships, and not suitable, used
alone, for propelling slow-speed
cargo vessels. Much interest is
now taken in propelling vessels by
a combination of reciprocating en-
gines and turbines. In this recipro-
turbine combination the steam is first
used to drive two sets of ordinary
reciprocating marine engines, and is
then passed on to a centrally-dis-
posed turbine. This arrangement is
an old idea of Mr. Parsons', and is
based on the advantage of the tur-
bine over the reciprocating engine in
point of economy, wherein lies its
practical ability to expand the steam
to a large volume and at low press-
ure. In the recipro-turbine combin-
ation, reciprocating engines may be
employed for that portion of the ex-
pansion in which they can extract
from the steam as much useful work
as a turbine ; and a turbine is then
employed to complete the work-ex-
tracting. Comparing the recipro-
turbine combination with the ordi-
nary reciprocating drive for a cargo
steamer in the former, the engines
and shafting require more space than
in the latter. But owing to its

7°

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

greater steam economy, less boiler
power is required with the recipro-
turbine combination, and a saving in
weight in this respect is effected.
The better economy also reduces the
bunker weights, so that the recipro-
turbine combination has its greatest
advantages for vessels going long
voyages without recoaling, while a
high vacuum is as necessary with the
recipro-turbine combination as in the
case of a vessel propelled by turbines
only; the conditions in the former
are much more favourable for air
leakage than in the latter, so that
the maintaining of a given vacuum
will be a more difficult matter.

There has been much discussion as
to the relative merits of propulsion by
Parsons turbines driving three or four
shafts and impulse turbines arranged
on two shafts only. In the usual ar-
rangement of Parsons turbines either
three or four main-ahead turbines are
employed, two of these being low-
pressure machines and one or two
high pressure. Each turbine drives a
propeller shaft, so that there are either
three or four shafts. In the four-
shaft arrangement the turbines con-
sist of two independent units, each
comprising a high-pressure and a low-
pressure turbine. These units are run
independently of each other. In the
three-shaft arrangement both low-
pressure turbines receive steam from
a common high-pressure machine, and
there are not two distinct units ; but
either low-pressure turbine can be
taken out if desired and the other two
turbines continue working. In the
usual arrangement there are only two
main-ahead turbines. Each of these
undertakes the complete expansion of
the steam and is quite independent of
the other. Each drives a shaft. In
both arrangements only prolonged ex-
perience can determine which is the
better.

The two systems are fitted on the
United States scout cruisers Chester
and Salem, the former having four-
shaft Parsons and the latter two-shaft
Curtis turbines. These cruisers are
the first United States warships to be

turbine-propelled, and may not con-
tain such good machinery designs as
could be adopted later. In both ves-
sels there are two engine-rooms sepa-
rated by a cross bulkhead, a high and
a low-pressure turbine and a con-
denser being in each room in the case
of the Chester, and a complete turbine
and a condenser in each room in the
case of the Salem, so that the disabling
of the whole propelling machinery by
a single projectile is unlikely in the
two ships.

As to the number of naval ships to
be laid down, the programme of 1910
has been bequeathed to Sir Arthur
Wilson. The number of ships must
necessarily depend upon their char-
acteristics. If important changes are
necessary in the design of ships, the
rate of construction may be altered to
reap a greater advantage. In Germany
the changes involved by the construc-
tion of the Dreadnought imposed a
suspense of nearly a year. The
Cawdor programme of 1905 proposed
the beginning of four big armoured
ships per annum. It was reduced in
the following year. The latest ships
will be more powerful than if they had
been laid down at the rate of four per
annum from 1906. Taking into ac-
count the four "contingent" ships of
1909, the same number of ships will
have been begun within the four years
as the Cawdor programme contem-
plated, viz., sixteen. Sir John Fisher
favoured six capital ships each year.
His programme for 1910-11 included
the commencement of four "capital"
ships, super-Dreadnoughts or Invinc-
ibles. This number is made possible
by the fact that, including the four
"contingent" ships, eight were in the
programme of 1909-10. Thus twelve
will be put in hand within two years.
The present rate of shipbuilding is
based largely upon that of Germany,
and the German Government, which
from 1908 to 191 1 includes four big
ships per annum.

Of destroyers the programme of
1909-10 includes twenty, which num-
ber will suffice to maintain and in-
crease the British lead. Germany is

RECENT SHIPBUILDING DEVELOPMENTS

building twelve per annum, the com-
plete programme including 144. Brit-
ish builders can turn out a destroyer
ready for sea within twelve months.
The Germans allow two years.

In the matter of turbines a question
much discussed of late is the turbo-
electric system of propulsion. There
is a "best speed" of rotation for the
screw propeller, at which speed maxi-
mum propeller efficiency is obtained.
As the speed of rotation is increased
above this "best speed" the efficiency
falls off. In order to get reasonable
propeller efficiency with turbine-pro-
pelled steamships the turbines have to
be run at considerably lower speeds
than are adopted in the driving of
electric generators. High-speed tur-
bines are lighter and cheaper than
low-speed machines of the same type
for a given maximum effective horse-
power, and can be built to give a
greater overall efficiency. To obtain
high propeller efficiency combined
with high-speed turbines, it is pro-
posed to transmit the whole or part of
the power electrically from the tur-
bine to the propeller shaft. One or
more high-speed turbines could be em-
ployed direct-coupled to electric gen-
erators, which would supply current to
electric motors on the propeller shaft
or shafts. The propellers could rotate
at a low speed, and the turbine would
be small, light and economical. The
advantages of such an arrangement
have been discussed, and a tender for
a United States battleship involved a
drive of this nature. As an alterna-
tive to electric transmission of power,
gearing has been proposed, the total
engine power or part of it being trans-
mitted by chain or spur gearing from
a high-speed turbine to a low-speed
propeller shaft. The objections to
gearing have probably been overrated,
but it is not, for large vessels, impos-
sible.

The use of superheated steam in
turbine steamships is also being con-
sidered. Steam turbines on land are
commonly supplied with superheated
steam, but no turbine-propelled ships
built in Great Britain have yet been

provided with superheaters. The
abrupt admission of high temperature
steam to a turbine without previously
heating up the machine is attended
with risk of injury to the engine.
Saturated steam at a pressure of 180
pounds per square inch has a tempera-
ture of 380 degrees Fahrenheit, and
the sudden admission of steam at this
temperature to a cold turbine is bad.
If the steam is superheated to 150 de-
grees, the case is worse. Reversing on
board ship has often to be accom-
plished suddenly and without warn-
ing. It is not surprising that super-
heating is regarded with disfavour
from the turbine point of view. Many
engineers advocate astern turbines
constantly heated up by intermittently
passing blasts of steam through them.
Mr. Parsons has a patent for the em-
ployment of a heat "buffer" between
the turbine and the boiler to shield the
former from abrupt changes of tem-
perature, and to reduce the risks in-
volved in the employment of super-
heated steam in turbine steamships.
The employment of superheaters on
steamships is now looked on with less
disfavour than formerly.

The idea of jet propulsion has been
revived, and the functions now ob-
tained by centrifugal pumps directly
coupled to steam turbines, with light-
ness, simplicity and moderate cost of
the machines, suggest factors of con-
siderable inportance in favour of the
advantages of jet propulsion. Im-
provements, moreover, have been
made both in the pumps and in the
method of discharging the jets. Fail-
ure which resulted before these im-
provements were effected need not
now be anticipated, and does not pre-
vent success in the future under more
favourable conditions. The German
Society of Naval Architects recently
discussed the subject, and experiments
will be welcomed. Steam turbine pro-
pulsion is in an unsettled state at pres-
ent. Much difference of opinion exists
as to the relative economy of turbine
and recipro-propelled vessels and
there is no doubt about the various
schemes for increasing the economy.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

There is still a chance that a type of
screw-propeller may be found which
will work efficiently at high speeds of
rotation. The Vulcan Company, of
Stettin, have produced hydraulic re-
duction and reversing gear whereby
to run a marine steam turbine at a
high, and the propeller shaft at a low,
speed of rotation. The transmission
gear, whether for ahead or for astern
running, comprises a primary water
turbine mounted on the steam turbine
shaft, and a secondary water turbine
mounted on the propeller shaft. The
primary water turbine converts the
steam turbine shaft power into hy-
draulic power, which latter is recon-
verted into shaft power by the secon-
dary water turbine. An efficiency of
transmission of over 80 per cent, is
said to have been obtained by this
gear.

The severity of the depression in
building in 1908 and 1909, which pro-
portionately was very much greater
than in any previous period of depres-
sion during the last twenty-five years,
must have a reacting tendency, and
signs are not wanting that the building
in 19 10, while not exceptional, will be
considerably in excess of the low fig-
ures of the last two years. At the pres-
ent time builders have quite a number
of orders on their books for merchant
tonnage to be delivered during the
year 1910.

It is the output for 1909 which will
have the greatest effect on freights
during the earlier part of 19 10, and an
additional tonnage of 750,000 tons
would require an additional annual
trade of about 5,000,000 tons to keep
it in employment throughout the year.

At the present time there is a cer-
tain amount of tonnage laid up, but
these vessels are mostly of the older
type, which, under severe competition,
are unable to be run at a profit. Any
improvement in freights would bring
these vessels into the market to com-
pete with the present employed ton-
nage. It will be seen that with the
existing tonnage in employment, the
laid-up tonnage and the new tonnage
being built, an addition of something

over 5,000,000 tons of cargo will be
required in 1910 over that carried in
1909, to keep freights even as good as
they have recently been. If the cargo
required to be shipped across the
seas is much in excess of this figure, it
can only result in an increase in
freights. If on the other hand the
cargo requirements are considerably
below this figure, the demand for ton-
nage must continue below the supply,
and the freight market still remain in
a low condition.

The world's mercantile marine dur-
ing the past twelve years has been in-
creased by 18,000,000 tons added to
the tonnage on the seas. The greatest
addition was in the year 1906, when,
after allowing for wastages, more
than 2,000,000 tons were added. In
1906 and 1907 the supply and demand
for tonnage reached a point at which
the one pretty well balanced the other,
but in 1907 the expansion in trade
reached its highest point, and at the
end of that year a crisis occurred in
the United States. The builders of
shipping had orders on their books,
and they put on the water a consider-
able amount of tonnage in excess of
what is annually lost. The depression
in shipping, which commenced in
1907, continued throughout 1908 and
the early part of 1909. In February,
1909, it was estimated that the number
of vessels laid up at ports in the
United Kingdom and on the continent
amounted to 1,065, v^ith a total ton-
nage of 1,500,000 tons. Since then
there has been some improvement in
shipping, and enough to attract a con-
siderable portion of this tonnage back
to ordinary trading. At the end of
December, 1908, there were 112 ves-
sels laid up in the Tyne, and by
August, 1909, this number had been
reduced to 53.

At a recent meeting of the Scottish
staff of Lloyd's Register of British
arid Foreign Shipping, Mr. F. G.
Gardiner, shipowner (chairman of the
Glasgow Committee of Lloyd's Regis-
ter), said he could not find in Lloyd's
any indications of senile decay. He
thought it was very much alive. There

RECENT SHIPBUILDING DEVELOPMENTS

was something like 21,000,000 tons of
shipping on its register, and no less
than 7,000,000 of foreign tonnage.
Between 1900 and 1909 they classed
over 12,000,000 tons of shipping. Last
year, out of the whole of the tonnage
built in British for British classifica-
tion, no less than 84 per cent, was
classed with Lloyd's. At the present
time some 920,000 tons are building in
Great Britain to be classed by Lloyd's
and 300,000 tons abroad. The British
tonnage was 40 per cent, more than
for the whole of last year.

Mr. J. H. Heck, of Lloyd's, says
that British ships and shipping have
done much to build up the great Brit-
ish Empire and to foster the British
characteristics of probity and self-re-
liance. We are indebted to merchants
and seamen for much of our food. The
welfare, even the existence, of the
country is bound up in its shipping in-
terests. Many years ago Sir Walter
Raleigh said that whosoever com-
manded the sea commanded the trade,
whosoever commanded the trade of
the world commanded the riches of
the world, and therefore the world it-
self. Some years ago, when the Com-
mittee of Lloyd's Register was first
formed, shipping was in a bad way.
The average daily loss was high. We
had not only lost much of the carry-
ing trade of the foreign merchant, but
even the British merchant found it to
his advantage as an individual to em-
ploy a much greater proportion of for-
eign ships. British shipbuilders were
behind the times, each had his own
ideas about scantlings and strength,
there was very little real supervision
in construction, and our ships were so
slow that foreign vessels could make
their voyages in about a third less
time. Contrast these conditions with
the present day. All classed vessels
are now built under survey, and under
rules which are the outcome of tech-
nical knowledge and experience.
Every time such vessels are dry-
docked in any part of the world they
are examined by a Lloyd's surveyor,
who reports on their condition. The
information thus supplied by trained

technical men enables the rules of the
society to be adjusted from time to
time in the direction either of reduc-
tion or increase of local strength.
Shipping interests, however, can only
flourish when they have a strong navy
to look after them. Confidence de-
pends on it, and confidence is the first
law of commerce. Strength, whether
in a navy or in the character of a ves-
sel, always pays best. A good- ship
makes good voyages, burns less coal
and costs least for repairs, while a
poor ship makes a poor return for the
outlay incurred.

Mr. Lawrence Glen, shipowner,
said that one of the marvels of the age
is the extreme cheapness of ocean car-
riage. The modern tramp steamer
could carry her cargo 1,000 miles for
9d. per ton and make a profit of 10
per cent. The only drawback is that
the shipowners never got the 9d., and
they are therefore tc do without the
10 per cent. A modern tramp steamer
could leave England and go round the
world by the two Capes, and even then
carry cargo at £2 8s. per ton. These
are marvelous figures, and they show
to what extent the world is indebted to
the carrying trade. A great deal of
credit is due to the shipbuilders and
steelmakers for producing ships that
can be run at these rates. Many
owners besides Mr. Glen think it a
pity to see so much "top hamper" as
there is now on many liners. There is
also far too much luxury connected
with liners. It is not necessary for
shipowners to model their arrange-
ments on the style of London West
End hotels. There is something of
the same tendency towards top ham-
per among tramp steamers, and some
of them are not much more than glori-
fied lighters with forests of derricks.
There is too much discharging and
loading machinery on the deck of a
ship. The proper place for such
things is on shore. To some people a
ship is only something that would
carry a certain amount of cargo, and
it is a pity that the British tramp ship
should be manned by the dregs of hu-
manity. Something might be done

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

to raise the status of the British sailor.
Progress in marine engineering in
the production of power with economy
is due to increase of steam pressure,
increase in the number of cylinders
and increase in the number of cranks.
The rise in steam pressure makes
possible a greater expansion of the
steam, and more o<f the heat it contains
is utilized for the production of work.
The increase in the number of cylin-
ders has enabled the greater expan-
sion of the steam to be carried out un-
der conditions favourable for econ-
omy. The increase in the number of
cranks has produced more uniform
rotation of the shafting and greater
freedom from vibration and racing.
Of triple-expansion engines experi-
ence soon showed that vessels fitted
with engines having three cylinders
and two cranks were not so economi-
cal as vessels fitted with engines hav-
ing three cylinders and three cranks.
Vessels fitted with two-crank com-
pound engines working with high
pressures of steam were found not so
economical or efficient as similar ves-
sels fitted with triple-expansion en-
gines having three cylinders and three
cranks and working with the same
high pressure of steam. In vessels
fitted with engines having four or
more cylinders and a crank for each
cylinder it was found that they are
more economical when compared with

engines having a smaller number of
cylinders and cranks. Some engineers
with experience of multi-crank en-
gines claim that such engines burn
less coal, make more uniform passages
and cost less for repair and upkeep.

Development in size and speed of
vessds and in pressures of steam has
led to economy in weight and to an in-
crease of piston speed and speed of
revolution, in order to produce greater
power from an engine of given size.
Increase of revolution produces in
proportion a greater increase in the
inertia forces, and had to be met by
extra weight and an increase in the
number of cranks. Therefore four-
crank engines (and engines with a
greater number of cranks) have been
brought into use. These engines are
more free from racing and vibration,
as with a greater number of cranks
the resultant action of the forces pro-
ducing vibration can be reduced by a
balance among themselves, to diminish
the effects of each other.

Lloyd's Register gives particulars
of 500 vessels fitted with quadruple
and four-crank engines. The tonnage
of the vessels so fitted amounts to 3,-
230,000 tons gross and the engine
power to 320,700 I. H. P.

How long will it be before we find
a record as large of merchant vessels
with internal-combustion engines and
burning oil fuel?

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INVENTIONS

By Arthur Pestel

WHEN a new invention has
been established, its devel-
opment brings forward
many difficulties. It, therefore, may
be of interest to consider this sub-
ject systematically and study its dif-
ferent methods, so that a clearer view
of the advantages, as well as disad-
vantages, of different plans may be,
obtained.

There are three methods avail-
able in commencing the development
of an invention. The adoption of
either depends mainly on the nature
of the device and also on the expe-
rience and technical training of the
inventor.

First. — A rough model may be
made of either wood or any other
suitable material, so that the prac-
ticability of the invention may be
demonstrated.

Second. — If certain features only
are doubtful in regard to their prac-
ticability, each one ought to be de-
veloped separately, and, when satis-
factory, combined with the others in
the design of the whole.

Third. — If practical demonstra-
tions as above mentioned are not
essential, a design with all calcula-
tions and drawings may first be made
and the invention completed accord-
ing to these plans.

The first method is usually ap-
plied in cases in which the invention
consists of single movements and
mechanism, and where the manufac-
ture of a single machine involves a
heavy cost, as in the case of large
machines required in connection with
excavating, building and mining
work, and the like.

In the development of inventions
of such character a scientific train-

ing of the originator is not so es-
sential as the inventive ability and
practical training in applied me-
chanics. The model, generally of
reduced size, is made only to prove
that the principle is right, and if any
members or parts should be out of
proportion in regard to size or
strength of material, it will not mat-
ter as long as the invention has
shown its vitality by means of the
model, which can be corrected and
rightly calculated and drawn into a
full-sized machine later by the de-
signing engineer.

The second method implies inven-
tions with complicated motions and
devices, such as automatic machines
for replacement of hand labour, agri-
cultural machines, tools and screw
machines, printing and type-setting
machines. Also, complicated instru-
ments must be placed in this class.

When all the movements have been
analyzed and sketched out, it is gen-
erally found advisable to separate
the most difficult features and de-
velop and test them independently of
the others.

After they have been made and
found to be satisfactory, it will then
be necessary to calculate and com-
bine all features in a design which
comprises the whole of the inven-
tion. In such cases the originator
should have a thoroughly analytic
mind, and a good, practical and a
more or less theoretical training is
a necessity, even if for the final de-
sign he should employ an efficient
engineer.

The third method deals with in-
ventions for which all the calcula-
tions and drawings are made first,
and for which the principal require-

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

ment is the behaviour of such agents
as steam, electricity, gasoline, etc.,
rather than the demonstration of the
practicability of complicated mech-
anism.

In this group prime movers and
similar machines may be classed, be-
ing mostly inventions of a highly
scientific character, which, therefore,
require a more or less academic
training on the part of the originator.

When the principle of an inven-
tion has been established as being
sound and its different features con-
sidered to be satisfactory, it is neces-
sary to obtain assistance for the vari-
ous portions of the work.

The engineer, draftsman, mechanic
and labourer are, therefore, the men
who have to be taken into considera-
tion. The inventor himself may be
in the favourable position to replace
the first and possibly the second of
the above mentioned. This, how-
ever, we shall not consider, and the
question of an engineer arises.

The requirements for such a man
depend on the nature of the inven-
tion, and must be decided by the
originator. If it is a machine in
which strength of material, or
physical properties of materials, or
of gases, liquids, etc., have to be
taken into consideration, or espe-
cially when mathematical investiga-
tions are required, the necessity for
an engineer becomes absolute.

Many of them, however, lack real
practical experience for this kind of
work, and the inventor finds at this
point obstacles placed before him
which at least may prolong the pro-
cess of development.

The inventor who, in some in-
stances, would adapt simple devices
which he, perhaps, has seen some-
where in practical operation, is pos-
sibly forced to replace them by more
complicated artifices, because for
different reasons the engineer cannot
always adapt the former. He is
not allowed to make certain con-
trivances, as imagined by the in-
ventor. His technical training will
not permit him to accept any poor

or chance idea. He has to deal with
cold facts, and cannot let his imagi-
nation go astray, especially when he
has to take responsibility in regard
to dangerous developments.

If the invention is of such a na-
ture that, in. the beginning, no engi-
neer is required (first and second
method), the originator, in dealing
with the draughtsman and mechanic,
or with the latter only, will find that
he has to choose one out of two
methods, either :

(A) His assistants make each part
and device according to his direc-
tions only, and are in no way left at
liberty in developing the invention.

(B) His assistants participate di-
rectly in the development of the in-
vention, and are allowed to make
suggestions in regard to improve-
ments in parts or devices, and also
are* given a certain liberty in their
formation and production.

Method A characterizes itself as
being the most scientific. All direc-
tions are given from one source,
passing from the engineer to the
draughtsmen, mechanics and la-
bourers.

A drawing is given of each de-
tail, and whenever a change is to be
made, corrected drawings are fur-
nished to the mechanics. In this
way the originator never sees, or at
least need not see, his help person-
ally, they being only a part of a
system.

Method B is not so strict in re-
gard to the application of purely
scientific methods, and lends rather
itself more toward individualism. It
accepts science only in so far as it
seems to help in technical develop-
ments and utilizes all available aid
of the assistants, especially in regard
to changes and improvements in the
invention.

With the selection of either one of
these two methods the inventor is
confronted. The conditions, which
are always different in each case,
must be met by him, and it depends
on his originality to know which
method to choose.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INVENTIONS

His own nature, ability and char-
acter, as well as those of his help,
are factors to be considered in the
selection of either of them.

Both methods have their advan-
tages and disadvantages, and with
either good results are attainable.

While studying them more closely,
it will be found that in choosing
Method A the inventor has the ad-
vantage of regarding all patentable
claims as his own, thus being free
in his actions and without any
obligations to others. Fear in re-
gard to claims which others may
make upon an invention is a con-
tinual source of trouble to an orig-
inator. On this account Method A
is often adopted, when, for other rea-
sons, Method B might be found
preferable. This latter method pre-
sents especially the advantage that,
for all details, alterations and im-
provements, a record is given by
means of the drawings which may
prove to be valuable for future
reference in regard to duplicate
work, claims on patent, etc., if date
is properly given.

In Method A it is not necessary
to have as much intelligence on the
part of the workman as in Method
B. When a complete drawing is made
of each part it requires less training
on the part of the mechanic than if
the piece is to be made without such
full instructions, relying upon his in-
dividual ability. More time is re-
quired for Method A, however, since
a mechanic can often complete a job
before the detail drawing could be
made, especially if changes and im-
provements are considered.

When drawings are given, the
workman is seldom aware of the
principle of . the invention or even
of the improvement being made, and,
not knowing what the parts are
meant for, has to make each one
more carefully in order to comply
with the drawings. He often wastes
time on parts in which dimensions
might possibly differ to a slight de-
gree, thus expending more time and
care than necessary.

This disadvantage is somewhat re-
duced by the adoption of Method B.
Instead of giving a drawing of each
part, a rough sketch, or even verbal
directions, will often suffice, thus
leaving the development more or less
to the mechanic, " which in many
cases will give more practical and
also quicker results.

If difficulties arise, especially in
regard to details, the mechanic, with
his practical training, can often over-
come them more easily, and thus
may be able to take from the in-
ventor the care for minor things,
leaving his mind open for broader
and wider subjects.

The originator being in close con-
tact with his men, may also be able
to learn practical points through ob-
servation and conversation. Nearly
every good mechanic has different
methods of his own for overcoming
certain difficulties, and keeping in
constant touch with these men has
proven beneficial in many respects.

When adopting Method B the in-
ventor may be able to arouse his men
to more interest in their work and be
able to awaken them to greater
activity. It is remarkable what
knowledge is sometimes to be found
amongst these men. By rightly
awakening their interest, thus bring-
ing forth their latent powers, care-
fully directing and utilizing their
efforts to the highest degree, one
may be able to obtain the best and
quickest results possible. Faculties
which otherwise would have re-
mained hidden and been lost are thus
made productive.

This method can, however, as
stated before, prove disadvantageous
in so far that it may give the men
claims on patent rights, which often
causes difficulties, especially if the as-
sistant places too much worth on the
merit of a certain improvement of a
part or even movement. It not sel-
dom happens that the mind of an as-
sistant, being entirely occupied with
the development of certain move-
ments, loses sight of the main prin-
ciple which is being established by

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

the originator, and comes to the con-
clusion that it is only through his
improvements that the invention has
been made vital, thus claiming exces-
sive advantages for himself. Such
claims generally cannot be granted ;
the man, therefore, loses interest in
his work or goes away to another
concern, possibly a competitor, after
having been educated in that special
work, and may sell his training and
ability to the disadvantage of the
originator.

The attitude toward the inventor,
in cases as above mentioned, is some-
times unbearable on account of the
intense struggle of the assistant for
recognition in connection with im-
provements, which in the latter's
eyes — who usually sees only one side
of the proposition — are ideal ; and
any criticism on the part of the orig-
inator is often considered to be caused
by selfish motives.

These are the main disadvantages
of Method B, and while it is not
every good mechanic who loses his
head on such occasions, yet expe-
rience shows that in many cases even
the most stable mind has its weak-
nesses, especially in such fascinating
subjects as establishing and realizing
his own new ideas. The privilege of
any claims on patent-rights may, of
course, be held by the originator by
making a contract with his assistants ;
but this does not give always the
best results, on account of the loss
of interest which then often follows,
thus producing a slower result. Be-
sides, the position which the inventor
has to maintain in case of difficulties
which are overcome by his helpers
will remain the same.

If, however, he is in a position to
deal with men who are free from
such selfish desires, Method B seems
to be the most advantageous, besides

being more rational and democratic
than the other, which bears some-
what the character of absolutism.

The ambition, zeal and effort of
the men are mostly hampered and lost
with Method A, on account of the
automatic nature of the work, when
for every detail and change specified
directions, with a drawing, are given
under the supervision of one man,
the originator.

The men become mere slaves of
this system and act more like ma-
chines, having no special interest
whatsoever in the final outcome of
the invention.

Method A, which is mostly adopted
in large concerns and in nearly all
European countries, is, from the
scientific point of view, the best,
while the other, with its more demo-
cratic character, develops the indi-
viduality of the assistants to a great
degree on account of the inventor
readily mingling with his men, hear-
ing their opinions in regard to de-
tails and improvements, and thus
creating more interest and ambition
among them.

This method has proved to be of
great advantage in the United States,
and it is hardly possible that the de-
velopment, especially in tools and all
automatic machines replacing hand
labour, would have shown such great
steps forward if individuality had not
been given its opportunity.

Much more, of course, is demanded
of the originator, who, besides the
knowledge of the subject of his in-
vention, is also required to have a
good understanding of men in gen-
eral, in order to get the best results
from them. Familiarity with their
ways of thinking', their character, as
well as their moral standing, is an
absolute necessity, and the study of
psychology seems to be very essential.

THE RELATION OF CANALS TO RAILWAY

TRANSPORT

THE PRESENT SITUATION IN ENGLAND
By S. Whettal

In all parts of the world the question of the economical transport of merchandise has become of
controlling importance. Waterways, formerly the principal means for the transportation of all kinds
of materials, have been largely superseded by railways, but with the increasing cost of railway transport,
statesmen in the United States, in Germany, and in Great Britain, have become aroused to the import-
ance of providing the competition which can alone be afforded by an independent system of canals,
equipped with modern appliances, and handled according to modern business methods. Mr. Whettal
discusses the present situation so far as Great Britain is concerned, and his arguments may well be
extended to include the subject in other parts of the world. — The Editor.

THE question of transport is of
importance to all readers, and
the problem is made more in-
teresting at the moment owing to
some remarks which have recently
been made by the chairman of one
of the leading railway companies.
Seeing that the remarks were in re-
spect to the charge made for trans-
port over the railway, they may be
quoted here. The remarks made by
this influential gentleman were as fol-
lows : "An important decision had
been given by the Railway Commis-
sioners in what was called the coal
case. In July, 1907, when the rail-
ways were not only paying high
prices for coal, but also for other ma-
terials, the increased cost of working
the traffic was pressing upon the rail-
ways, and the companies decided to
make an additional charge of 2j4
per cent, for the carriage of a cer-
tain class of coal. The coal mer-
chants declined to pay the extra
charge, and action was taken by
some of the railway companies to
recover the charge. Thereupon the
coal merchants and others interested
in the trade laid the case before the
Railway Commissioners, who, after
hearing both sides, decided that the
increased charge was reasonable and

was justfied by the increased cost of
working. Apart altogether from the
money involved in this particular ad-
vance, the decision of the Commis-
sioners was important in that it rec-
ognized the principle that the in-
creased burden put upon the railway
companies was a justificaton for in-
creasing their charges."

From the above statement it is
easy to understand what attitude the
railway companies will take with re-
spect to increasing many of the ex-
isting railway rates. It is, perhaps,
as well to note that these remarks
were passed at a time when the ma-
jority of railway shareholders were
congratulating themselves upon in-
creased dividends. It is also well to
know that the railway companies do
not control all the carrying busi-
nesses, seeing that it is from one of
their competitors- — the canals — that
the traders may expect concessions
in rates. Therefore, a few remarks
on this question will probably be of
interest to all traders connected with
any business whose goods are non-
perishable. The following statistics
show the relative size of British
canals, both independent and railway-
owned, and railways, along with the
tonnage and receipts :

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

STATISTICS OF BRITISH RAILWAYS AND CANALS

Railways

Canals not owned by Railway Companies.-. .
Canals owned by Railway Companies

The reader will notice the great
disparity between the amounts re-
ceived for carriage from those canals
owned by the railway companies and
those owned by the canal companies.
It is certainly instructive to learn
that, on the one hand, the net amount
per mile was £216; in the case of
the railway-owned canals it was only
£40 per mile. It is, therefore, ap-
parent that the railway-owned canals
are certainly not paying the railway
companies, and this is borne out when
one compares the neglected state of
these canals in comparison to those
owned by private enterprise ; so that
the only inference to be drawn is
that the railway companies are evi-
dently not desirous that their canals
shall be too successful. This will,
no doubt, be quite obvious, although
the reader will probably agree that
the railway companies are thus go-
ing against the true interest of the
traders by allowing their waterways
to be given over to the weeds and
fishes. A trader who forwards non-
perishable traffic is bound to be con-
cerned in the cost of transport, and
anything which is likely to cheapen
the cost of such transport is de-
sirable and necessary. One conclu-
sion is easily arrived at, and that is :
Were railways to work more in con-
junction with the canal companies
and develop their own canals to a
greater extent, then they would, in
all probability, be able to lower the
existing railway rates instead of be-
ing desirous of increasing them.

Where canal competition exists, the
trader generally receives the benefit
of such competition, as the follow-
ing information will show.

The figures given thereunder have
been compiled from a reliable source,
and they give the rates as based upon
the maximum charges, as well as the
actual rates in force, between the
places Manchester and Liverpool,

Length in
miles.

23,074
2,768

1,138

Paid-up
capital in
millions.

£
1,287.4
37.9
Not stated

Traffic

millions.

Tons.

414.2

33.3

6.0

Net

receipts in

millions.

44.4

.05

Net

receipts

per mile.

1,924

216

and Newcastle and Leeds, respec-
tively. It may be mentioned that all
maximum charges are common to the
canals as well as to the railways, and
that it is in respect to the special
and exceptional rates which are in
operation for all classes of goods,
that the canal companies can give the
trader the benefit of low rates. The
maximum rates are fixed by law and
the minimum rates are agreed upon
at a conference between the various
railway and canal companies, so that
it is clear that the canal companies
endeavour to keep the rates as low
as possible, because this is the only
chance the canal companies have of
securing a fair share of the traffic.
In the following are given the rates
between Manchester and Liverpool,
where competition exists between rail-
ways and canals, distance 34 miles :

Rates actually in operation.
Classes.
0 12

Per ton 7/ 7/11 9/2

10/10'

Rates based upon maximum charges.
Classes.
0 1 2 3

Per ton 7/5 9/11 11/10 13/8-

Note.— No allowance made for cartage.

From the figures given above it
will be noticed that the actual rate
in operation is in every instance be-
low the rate when based upon the
maximum charges, and this clearly
proves that the railway companies
have been compelled, through canal
competition, to lower their rates. As
a comparison, take the figures given
hereunder, which show the rates
where there is no canal competition.
The places are Newcastle and Leeds,
distance ioo miles :

Rates actually in operation.
Classes.

0 12 3

Per ton 13/9 20/5 25/5 29/3'

Rates based upon maximum charges.
Classes.
0 12 3

Per ton 14/5 20/11 25/4 29/4'

Note. — An approximate allowance for cartage is;
included in the above maximum charges.

RAILWAYS AND CANALS

The particulars given herein will
tend to prove that canals are bene-
ficial to the trader, as they have the
tendency to reduce the carrying
rates, and it appears very possible
that in the near future the trader
will have still further assistance from
the canals, as the Canal Commission
has reported favourably on a scheme
to improve and reconstruct the in-
land waterways. As it is possible to
give only a brief outline of the
scheme in these pages, but a few de-
tails can be mentioned in this short
article. The main proposal is to form
a central waterway board and vest
in the members of the board the
power of working the canals solely
in the interests of the public. It is
proposed to have four large trunks
connecting the Midland area of Bir-
mingham, Wolverhampton, Notting-
ham, etc., with the Thames, the
Severn, the Mersey and the Hum-
ber. A service will be provided with
boats of a minimum capacity of ioo
tons in some districts and 300 tons
in others, to suit the requirements
of the canal or the needs of the dis-
trict. The Commissioners estimate
that the cost of reconstruction, etc.,
will be 17.5 million pounds, and to
cover the cost of maintenance and
other charges a gross revenue of just
over 1 million pounds will be re-
quired. When traders get to know
that cheaper rates can be obtained in
districts where canals compete with
the railways, they will doubtless be
anxious for the canal systems to be
improved. For commercial develop-
ment to be fully extended, it is es-.
sential that both the railways and the
canals be improved and worked as
economically and as scientifically as
practicable, so that a maximum
amount of benefit is obtained at a
minimum amount of expense. If
this were done, the trader would reap
the benefit; because when transport
charges are so high, so, too, are the
prices of both raw and finished mate-
rials, and whatever price is charged
for carriage must be borne by the
article as an additional charge.

1-6

There is plenty of room for im-
provement and addition to the Bri-
tish canal system, more particularly
in the case in the northeastern part
of England, where there are no
canals for miles upon miles. It,
therefore, transpires that the railway
company there has a monopoly,
which is not altogether beneficial to
the public generally. As a result of
this monopoly the railway company
in this railway district insists that
wagons which the trader requires to
travel through to a destination from
a siding, shall be charged at a mini-
mum charge as for two tons. The
result is that, when the trader has
a load of about one-half ton, which
his customer requires urgently and
the traffic cannot wait for transship-
ment, the railway must have 300 per
cent, extra, and in return the trader
gets the privilege of being able to
send the goods through to destina-
tion without being transshipped.
The railway company takes no more
liability for delay than is usual, and
this is, of course, practically "nil."
Where there is competition between
the canals and the railways, and
even between the railways themselves,
it is possible to send urgent goods
when under one ton, provided the
traffic is paid for as a full ton, so
that it proves cheaper for the trader
when competition is keener.

With the railways owning one-
third of the existing canals, they
have been in the position to cramp
the development of the canals to a
great extent, and perhaps their pol-
icy will not turn out to be the best
thing for themselves. Owing to the
fact, that the waterways have been
allowed to get into such a bad con-
dition, they have deteriorated so
much that it will be impossible for
them to be used unless great expense
is incurred.

Should the canals be reconstructed,
they will secure a lot of traffic which
is at the present time carried by the
railway companies, especially that
traffic which does not demand ex-
ceptionally speedy transport. The

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

cost of working the canals is much
less than the cost of working the
railways, so that, naturally, the canal
companies can offer better induce-
ments with respect to low rates than
can the railway companies. The
working cost of the railways at the
present time will not allow of any
reduction in the rates ; in fact, ac-
cording to a high railway authority
on railway matters, the rates would
in all probability be increased in the
near future. An approximate esti-
mate for the cost of the appliances
to carry 250 tons of goods is that
it would cost the railway companies
five times more than the canals for
their purchase.

Before the canals can hope to com-
pete on favourable terms with the
railways, they will have to improve
the methods of haulage considerably
and introduce the latest steam and
motor barges. In America electric

haulage has been tried on many of
the larger canals, and, on the whole,
it is fairly successful. Great Bri-
tain is rather behind with respect to
canal transport, particularly so with
regard to haulage and in connection
with the construction of locks.

In conclusion, it may be said that
the traders who forward such heavy
traffic as machinery, boilers, raw ma-
terials, pig-iron, manufactured steel,
coal and similar materials, will
gladly welcome any innovation which
is likely to reduce the carriage
charges, as the percentage of the
gross value of the goods paid in
freight charges is, at the present
time, about 5 per cent, on some ma-
terials, whilst on coal and other min-
erals it varies from 40 to 60 per
cent. The reader will probably ap-
preciate the necessity for an improve-
ment in the methods of transport
whereby lower rates can be obtained.

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

By Lionel Wiener

In considering the possibilities of the natural resources of Brazil, one of the most important elements
lies in the transportation facilities, and hence the series of articles upon the railways of the country, of
which the first is here given, will be found of especial value. When it is realized that the area of
Brazil is somewhat greater than that of the United .States, and but little less than the entire area of
Europe, and that it already has a population of more than nineteen millions, it will be understood to
how great a degree its future is bound up with the development of such railway systems as will enable
it to be exploited, and with such development almost boundless wealth will be rendered accessible.
Future articles by Mr. Wiener, whose opportunities on the spot render him especially well qualified to
treat the subject, will include detailed accounts of the various lines. — The Editor.

BRAZIL is no exception to the
general rule prevailing in
South America, and a number
of its railways are owned or worked
by British companies. But lately
several lines have been bought back
by Government and American com-
panies floated to work them.

This Pan-American movement is
growing apace, and it is understood
that American capitalists have been
buying heavily, with the object of
the formation of a combination of
the larger railways, harbours and
tramway systems.

Collecting accurate information
about these railways is particularly
difficult, not only because they are
granted under such a variety of laws
and either by the "Union" or by the
"States," but also because such
partial statistics as do exist are in-
accurate and obsolete.

I propose giving, in the following
pages, a sketch of Brazilian rail-
ways, their history and situation up
to the present date.

As far back as 1835, and thirteen
years only after the birth of the
Empire, a bill was passed authoriz-
ing the government to concede rail-
roads from Rio to the capitals of
what were then the provinces of
Minas Geraes, Bahia and Southern
Rio Grande. It is noteworthy that
Brazil was one of the first countries
to follow England's lead in granting
railway lines (though not in build-
ing them), England, Belgium and

Brazil following in close succession
(as with postage stamps) ; also, that
these lines were granted at the very
outset as part of a general plan for
joining the capitals of the outlying
provinces with the capital of the Em-
pire. It is equally noteworthy that
nothing came of it all, not for many,
many years.

These lines had been granted for
forty years only, and even in those
remote days it was in England that
the Marquis of Barbacena sought the
funds for floating the company, but
failed to do so, as the financial fu-
ture of the company was too uncer-
tain. It is curious to note that to-
day, three-quarters of a century
later, one of these lines only is in
operation, neither the capitals of
Bahia nor of Southern Rio Grande
having railway communication with
Rio de Janeiro.

On June 26 another law was
passed authorizing the government
to grant private companies during
ninety years a guarantee of 5 per
cent, interest on the estimated cost
of the line, and the provinces an-
other 2 per cent., countersigned by
the government. The actual guar-
anteed capital was subject to read-
justment after the building should
be completed.

The concession was perpetual, but,
after the first thirty years, the right
of redemption might be exerted.
The company was also granted a
protected zone of five Brazilian

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

leagues on either side (the Brazilian
league is 6,600 metres, or 7,218
yards), within which no other com-
pany would be allowed to build com-
peting lines, besides a number of
other advantages, such as the free
use of timber or other material ex-
isting on unoccupied or national
land, the exemption of duty on all
construction material, whether for the
line or the workshops, and on the
coal for the locomotives.

On the other hand, the govern-
ment fixed the maximum tariffs, as
follows :

Export goods, 54 shillings 5 pence
per ton-mile.

Import goods, just double.

First, second and third class fares,
at 600, 400 and 200 reis, respectively,
per Brazilian league.

Brazilian currency is the milreis
($), whose value varies with the
exchange. Its present value is about
15 pence, or about 30 cents in United
States money, which I have used in
all the following conversions. One
thousand milreis are a "Conto" of
reis (:). These values apply to the
milreis, paper, unless otherwise spe-
cified, the value of the milreis, gold,
being 27 pence.

Should the companies' dividends
surpass 12 per cent, (and this has,
in many instances, proved to be no
idle clause), tariffs should be re-
duced ; if comprised between 8 and
12 per cent., half the corresponding
earnings should be refunded to the
government in repayment of interest
guarantee received.

A curious clause stipulates that all
Brazilians in the company's service
would be exonerated from military
and guard duty. The use of slaves
was prohibited, though slavery had
not yet been abolished.

I have quoted the principal clauses
of this law because the subsequent
railway legislation has only modified
the original law, without any new
departures.

These terms were tempting, and
many railways were granted in com-
pliance with them.

The following companies were in-
corporated (quoting only such lines
as have been built) :

Recife & Sao Francisco (now part
of the Great Western Railway) ;

Bahia & Sao Francisco ;

Santos & Jundiahy (now the Sao.
Paulo Railway Company) ; all three
English companies ; and, finally,

The Dom Pedro II. Railway, a
Brazilian company floated by the Vis-
count de Rio Bonito, taken up by
the government in 1865, and which
is to-day the Central Railway of
Brazil.

These, with the Rio Claro Rail-
way, form the broad-gauge system,
of Brazil. This gauge had been
stipulated, in the 1852 law, 5 feet 6-
inches originally, which was soon re-
duced to 5 feet 3 inches.

All these lines start from the coast
and run inland, which is still the
general characteristic of Brazilian-
railways, and the reason the develop-
ment has been so slow and difficult..
There is a formidable barrier be-
tween the sea and the uplands, the
continuous Sero do Mar stretching
close to the coast from the north all"
the way to Porto Alegre, near the
frontier of Uruguay in the south,
thus rendering the first section of
the railways the most costly of the-
system. Conversely, important har-
bours are rare and far between, ex-
portation depending on the ease with
which agricultural produce from the-
inland provinces can reach the coast.

Natal is the most northerly of these
harbours, and is followed by Recife-
(also called Pernambuco), Bahia
(or Sao Salvador), Ilheos, Victoria,
Rio, the capital, with Nicteroy op-
posite, Santos, the harbour and sea-
coast town of the State of Baa
Paulo, and Rio Grande do Sul (also-
called Sao Pedro).

These are the more important of
the natural harbours, and the gov-
ernment early perceived the neces-
sity of making inland railways start
from each of them.

The natural development of the-
country has followed, and traffic in-

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

creased to such an extent that the
early harbors have become insuffi-
cient, and all of them have had to
undergo a number of improvements ;
some are now in course of construc-
tion, the others will be so shortly.
The life of each of these harbours
is so tied up with that of the rail-
way system it serves that it is im-
possible to examine the one without
-examining the other; we will, there-
fore, take them together.

Broad gauge had been decided
upon at the very outset, which in
such a country as Brazil is a pity.
This is one of the reasons railway
progress was so slow originally ;
there is no doubt about that. The
land was new, capital shy, building
costly. The metre gauge would have
suited the country's requirements far
better, especially at the outset; and
its extraordinary development and
the railway system's quick growth as
soon as the government substituted
the metre to the 5-foot 3-inch gauge
bear witness to the fact. A few of
the older 5-foot 3-inch gauge lines,
thus isolated, have actually been con-
verted back to the metre gauge, and
a small system of a few trunk lines
is all that remains of the broader
tracks.

On April 29, 1852, Viscount Maua
floated a company for building a rail-
way from Maua, on the Bay of Rio,
to the foot of the neighbouring hills,
the Serra de Estrella. This is the
first line to have been opened to
traffic in South America, and that
without a guarantee of government
aid of any kind. The extensions up
the hills of both this and the Nicteroy
lines were wisely laid to the metre
gauge and the original lower sections
eventually narrowed.

The Maua line was followed at a
very short interval by the Uniao
Valentiana line, technically the worst
of Brazil. It was laid to 1. 10-metre
gauge (3 feet y1/^ inches), which it
has, so far, been alone to retain.
This railway was built with funds
loaned in part by the State and in
part by the large landowners.

Its curves are sharper than those
of any other road in the country,
237 feet radius being not uncommon,
while the gradients reach 1 in 28.
Luckily, it is not a long line, run-
ning from Desligado, a small station
on the Dom Pedro II. Railway, due
north to the frontier of the State of
Rio, on the banks of the Rio Preto.
It is this fact, coupled with the one
that the Valentiana Railway has never
been extended beyond its original
terminus, that shows that the frontier
of the State follows the Rio Preto,
and not the Parahyba, some thirty
miles to the south, as half the gov-
ernment maps show, either.

Such was the immediate success
of both lines that they were followed
by a number of others, granted by
the provinces ; and as they have
formed the backbone of the whole
system, it is interesting to quote
them. I would add that not only
were railways built under these bills,
but also under a number of others,
the principal ones of which I will
quote.

In the State of Rio the Cantagallo
Railway was conceded in 1856, the
Sao Antonio de Padua Railway in
1872, the Machhe & Campos Railway
in 1870; these three roads are the
earliest sections, with the Maua Rail-
way, of the' important Leopoldina
Railway Company.

The Rezende & Areas Railway was
granted by the same State in 1872,
and has remained a small, indepen-
dent concern, which is a pity, as it
might otherwise have reached some-
where.

In the State of Pernambuco, the
Pernambuco & Limoeiro Railway was
started in 1870, and has since be-
come the Great Western Railway.
The Caxanga Railway was started in
1863 and the Olinda & Berebibe in
1868. Here, again, is the original
gauge mistake, from which hardly
a country has been free : each of
these three lines has been built to a
different gauge. It is difficult to
realize to-day that the original pro-
moters never realized this blunder.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

The Central of Bahia Railway was
begun in 1866 to a different gauge
again — 3 feet 6 inches — the only one
in Brazil, and has not been con-
verted yet, owing to no connection
with any other railway having been
established.

In the south, the State of Sao
Paulo conceded a line to the Paulista
Railway in 1862, to the Sorocabana
in 1870, and to the Mogyana Rail-
way that same year ; these three roads
have developed into important rail-
way systems, aggregating the largest
mileage in Brazil.

The State of Parana started the
Paranagua & Curytiba Railway as far
back as 1872, and the two oldest
lines of the State of Southern Rio
Grande were begun in 1869 and
1870 from Porto Alegre. the chief
town, to Novo Hamburgo, and from
Rio Grande, the principal harbour to
Bage, a large inland town and impor-
tant smuggling centre.

All these lines are now in opera-
tion ; the trouble has lain in uniting
them.

The next new departure was made
by the State of Minas Geraes in
granting the Leopoldina Company a
subsidy of 9,000$ per kilometer of
new line (about 14,481$ per mile),
instead of a guarantee of interest.
This law, a mistake in itself, served
its turn, and though some railways
were undoubtedly built for the sole
purpose of being paid the subsidy,
they were built; on the other hand,
most of them are uselessly long and
circuitous. This same mistake has
been made in Spain. A further trial
of the system was made on the West
of Minas line, also in the State of
Minas, between Sitio and Sao Joao
del Rey, the first section of a long
inland-penetration line. The Bahia
& Minas Railway and a few others
in the State of Rio followed, and
the system was sanctioned thereafter.

In 1873, 639 miles of railways had
been opened to traffic; but there was
still a knotty point: should the met-
ropolitan government or should the
provinces concede the lines? A num-

ber of bills were passed between
February, 1874, by the Empire until
June 26, 1890, by the Federated
States, all allowing either to con-
cede railways in specified instances.
The latter bill decided that the met-
ropolitan government should grant
all railways :

(a) That connect Rio, the capital,
with the capitals of the States;

(b) That connect Brazil with the
neighbouring republics ;

The States may grant extensions,
provided the government has no in-
tention of so doing. When granting
inter-State railways the States must
consult the government about the
gauge and some other points. The
government also decides in all ques-
tions relating to any railway within
a hundred - kilometer zone (62%
miles) of the (a), (b), or (c) lines.

In the meantime, the legislation
for the government concessions had
undergone gradual alterations.

The law of February 18, 1874,
stipulated such concessions should be
perpetual or temporary, and not
longer than ninety years in this case,
after which time the railway would
revert to the nation.

On August 10, 1878, another law
was edicted, stipulating all conces-
sions should be temporary.

The early steps had to be paid for,
of course, and each successive law
brought some correction to the for-
mer one.

The original six-league guarantee
(41 miles) was reduced to 60 kilo-
meters (37^ miles) in 1874 to 25
miles in 1878, and to half that after-
wards.

In the same way the duration of
the government guarantee of interest
was reduced from ninety years at the
outside in 1874 to thirty years in all
concessions granted after 1878. The
way this guarantee was calculated
has altered as well ; the 1874 law
contained a clause stipulating this
guarantee should cover the original
capital after readjustment when the

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

building accounts were closed ; the A few years back practically all

1878 law was based upon a thor- lines had a guarantee. On January

oughly different principle: the orig- 1, 1908, eleven lines only still have

inal estimates and survey having a governmental guarantee, all 6 per

been approved of by the government, cent., gold or paper, except the Cam-

the guaranteed capital expenditure panha line, 4 per cent. only,

was, therefore, unalterable. Both The gold guarantee applies to six

systems had their drawbacks ; in the of them, aggregating 557 miles,

first case, the guaranteed capital ex- The paper guarantee, to five lines

penditure sometimes far exceeded and 396 miles.

the amount it was the government's All these lines are worked at a

wish to cover, and in the second loss. Here is a list of them :

GUARANTEED RAILWAYS IN BRAZIL.

LINE. Miles Kind of Ratio exp. Guarantee. Liability,

open. Railway. gross earn. £ Sterling.

Victoria Diamantina 130 penetration 116,11 6% gold 113,314

Sao Paulo & Rio Grande 261 connection 135 6% gold 131,500

" branch penetration building 6% gold 26,312

North Western Railway 51 penetration 231 6% gold 55,564

Goyaz Railway penetration building 6% gold 19,725

Quarahim & Itaquy 109 strategical 99,5 6% gold 40,500

AlcoQaba Praia da Rainhas transrapids building 6% gold 9,618

£385,526

Caxias Cajazeiras 49 transbasin 119,34 6% paper 8,305

Lepoldina Company, 3 lines:

Barao Araruama branch 32 extension 192,8 6% paper 5,793

Central Macahe Ry 27 development 200,4 6% paper 4,488

S. Eduardo Itapen 58 extension 132,4 6% paper 10,489

Muzambinho Ry. Campanha branch 54 development 168,6 4% paper 6,274

Mogyana Ry. Araguary line 176 penetration 111,3 6% paper 31,838

£67,847

case the guarantee might cover quite The paper guarantee liabilities are
a different amount to that which was stated in milreis, and have been con-
really expended, which was either verted in the above table at the rate
to the company's or to the govern- of 15 d. per 1$.
ment's detriment. The fact of the expenses being so

The interest, government's guar- much heavier than the earnings is no

antee, carried has varied, of course, proof of the government's subsidiz-

with the financial condition of the ing bad or useless lines only. A

market. Originally 7 per cent., it number of them are either penetra-

has fallen to 6 per cent., gold or tion lines, or connections that are an

paper, and quite recently to 5 per indirect source of revenue to the

cent., gold. State in opening up new districts.

The guarantee system is a costly The expenses due to interest guar-
one ; the government has, therefore, antee have slightly increased during
endeavored of recent years to do the past year and reached 1,814,500$,
away with it, and few new railway paper (£113,406) and 4,904,063$,
undertakings are likely to be granted gold (£181,632), owing to the in-
such guarantees in the future. Of crease in several of the subsidized
course, when a new line is deemed companies' capital,
necessary across a poor country or Up to 1899 a number of lines had
to open up new districts to civiliza- been built connecting towns or con-
tion, such guarantee is often neces- venient districts with each other, all
sary; but even then other ways are isolated undertakings,
being tried. Whenever the govern- There was no governmental rail-
ment has been able to do so the lines way policy besides the complication
with a guarantee have been bought arising from having metropolitan
back or otherwise incorporated, and government concessions or leases
leased again on other terms either to (called lines of the "Union") and
the same or to other companies. others granted by the States.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

A Railway Commission was ap-
pointed on May 3, 1890, for draw-
ing up a general plan of the rail-
ways that should be built and turn-
ing the whole system into a sound
and useful one. This was all the
more necessary as Brazil has a
unique system of waterways : the
basin of the Amazon extends right
up into Matto Grosso and Bolivia,
where the Rio Paraguay's tribu-
taries start, forming a magnificent
and nearly unbroken inland water
communication across pretty nearly
the whole continent. Besides these,
a number of powerful rivers lead
down to the Atlantic; and when there
is still such a vast system of rail-
ways to build, the navigable streams
show not only which lines need not
be built in the immediate future, but
also which should be, for connecting
two such rivers.

The Commission sent in their re-
port, which was adopted. All the
lines the Commission recommended
have been built, or are building,
sometimes in a slightly modified
form; but as the railway building
scheme now in hand is the outcome
of the 1892 report, the new lines the
Commissioners asked for are in-
teresting to quote.

The ruling idea was to unite the
existing systems, to build a few long
penetration lines into suitable dis-
tricts, and to complete the military
or "strategical lines." Most of the
penetration lines were to continue
those starting from the coast of
Sao Paulo and Rio States and to
reach some tributary of the North-
ern, Amazon or Paraguay water-
sheds.

Among these the line to Catalao
from Barra Mansa is one of the
foremost. There has been a good
deal of subsequent trouble about this
line, which has changed hands sev-
eral times, and though Goyaz, with
its pastures, its excellent climate and
its gold mines, seems to be one of
the most promising parts of Brazil,
no railway has yet opened up con-
nection with Catalao, though several

are now in course of construction.

The northern isolated lines were
to be lengthened and united; these
connections are being proceeded with
now.

The principal strategical lines were
destined, of course, to carry troops
easily to various points of the
frontier. These are the Pelotas and
Jaguarao branch, just surveyed; a
line from Cacequy to Rivramento,
about to be opened to traffic, and
from Cruz Alta to the Uruguay
River, building. These three roads
run to the southern frontiers of
Brazil. A fourth was to connect
Guarapuava, in the Parana State,
with the mouth of the Iguasu and
Corumba, on the frontier of Bolivia.

Should Brazil wish to garrison the
Bolivian frontier, she must now send
the troups around the southern
States, down past Uruguay and up
the Rio de la Plata and Parana,
in the Argentine Republic, until
Corumba is reached. It has since
been found expedient to shift the
starting point of the new line to
Bauru, in the State of Sao Paulo,
and is already quite a distance in-
land. The North Western Railway
runs from Bauru to Itapura, and will
reach Corumba shortly.

Other connections were advised
and a railway to the frontier of
British Guyana proposed because,
said the report, "having been in-
formed that on the boundaries of
Brazil with British Guyana the na-
tives were taught English, and that,
accordingly, they became identified
with that nation; and led also by re-
cent events which showed clearly the
ambition of European nations regard-
ing territorial possessions, the Com-
mission thinks it is of the utmost im-
portance to nationalize these remote
regions as soon as possible, and
earnestly calls the government's at-
tention to this point."

In 1892 the Department of Gen-
eral Railway Inspectorate or "fiscali-
zation" was formed. There are
seven fiscalization districts, of very
unequal importance :

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

(1) Para, Maranhao, Piauhy and nominal fee when it is government's
Ceara. property, and may expropriate it

(2) Rio Grande dol Norte, Para- should it be necessary to do so. Ad-
hyba, Pernambuco, Alagoas. vertisements in Europe tempt im-

(3) Sergipe and Bahia. migrants, whose passage to Rio is

(4) Espirito Santo, Rio, Minas paid by the Brazilian Government,
and Goyaz. These immigrants are given the land

(5) Sao Paulo. free, and are helped by the railways

(6) Parana, Santa Catharina. in a number of ways: 50 per cent.

(7) Rio Grande do Sul. reduction on all rates during five
At the time (1892) the develop- years and a stipulated number of

ment of the railways was at follows : days' work each year upon the rail-

, Miles v way. They are provided with seed

Subsidized Not subsidized Total r- ,1 • r- 1 1 j- • • <• j_i

Open to traffic... 1,849 979 2,828 for their fields, medicine if they are

Building 2,249 228 2.477 j]1 pfr frpp Qn fV,~ other VianH

Under survey .... 3,964 723 4,687 U1> GlC-> Iree- ^n rne omer nana,

in project 3,458 3,442 6,900 the government pays the company a

n,52o 5,372 16,892 premium of 200$ (£12 10/-) for

There had been a regular railway each new house erected in the

craze, and privilege lines were be- "colony," 100$ ( £6 5/-) per family

coming the exception. The protected living on the colony more than six

zone had dwindled and disappeared; months, and 5 contos (£312 1/-) per

so had the guarantee of interest in group of fifty lots of ground where

many cases. But the first fruits of immigration has definitely settled into

the revolution were the upsetting of landed property.

all the economic rules of the coun- On January 1, 1909, the railway

try and that terrible slump in the system of Brazil was made up as

exchange from which it has never follows :

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL.

, Miles. v

RAILWAYS. Open. Building. In project. Total.

Government owned and worked 2,126.2 1,038 561.8 3,726

Government owned and leased 3,057 229.4 362.2 3,649.6

Private lines, conceded by Government, with guarantee. . 1,457 592 617 2,666

Private lines, conceded by Govt., without guarantee.... 1,155 51 828.4 2,034.4

Private lines, conceded by the States 3,851 456.8 1,131 5,428.8

Total 11,646.2 2,357.2 3,501.4 17,504.8

thoroughly recovered. The railways Another 357 miles was opened to

were badly crippled, and the revision traffic on April I, 1909.

of tariffs was the consequence. The The large mileage of government

outcome was an increase in the rates roads is due to many causes. In

up to 30 and 40 per cent. The rail- compliance with the general railway

way industry revived and has pros- scheme of 1892, the government built

pered. a number of lines. Then most lines

The government, besides, has having a governmental guarantee

wisely done all that lay in its power have been bought up; besides which,

to people and colonize the vast tracts when companies became financially

of uninhabited or sparsely inhabited involved, such as the West of Minas

land. Railway companies are now Railway, the government incorpor-

obliged to build "colonies" along ated them and endeavoured to form

their lines, in conformity with the them into systems having a better

clauses inserted in the recent con- prospect of success,

tract with the Sao Paulo & Rio Finally, the old Dom Pedro II.

Grande Railway Company. These Railway, now the Central Railway of

colonies should be in suitable situa- Brazil, has been nationalized,

tions, about 13 miles apart. The All these lines are formed into sys-

company purchases the land at a terns and leased.

9°

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Besides the usual clauses as to
rentage, taxes, and often the build-
ing of extra branches and exten-
sions, they must now provide the
trains and stations with refrigerators
and run dining and sleeping-cars of
"the most modern design."

There is no present likelihood of
leasing the Central Railway, one of
the most important of Brazil, as it is
the government's intention to keep it
as a training school for its engineers
and as a useful political tool. Sev-
eral new lines have not been leased
yet, but are likely to be leased
shortly — as soon, in fact, as they
turn out paying concerns, or upon
completion. The enthusiasm for the
government's "connection scheme"
has been out of all proportion to its
immediate usefulness ; it seems to
have been the outcome of some sort
of popular feeling for consolidating
the unity of the Brazilian Republic.

The State railways are now the
following :

The Central of Brazil Railway,
from Rio to Sao Paulo and north-
ward; the West of Minas, in that
State; the Rio do Ouro Railway and
the Dona Thereza Cristina Railway,
two small lines, both costing a horri-
ble amount to work.
■ Besides these lines, all of which
are owned and worked by the gov-
ernment, the Railway Department is
building the following, in compliance
with the 1892 scheme :

The Madeira & Mamore Railway ;

The Sao Luiz & Caxias ;

The Baturite and the Sobrl ex-
tensions ;

The Timbo & Propria.

All these lines are up north. Be-
sides, the Cruz Alta & Ijuhy is
under construction by the War De-
partment, and the Loreno to Bar-
reiros line is in the hands of the
military authorities.

Most Brazilian railways are metre
gauge; but the curves are often too
sharp and the gradients too steep for
lines that should be looked upon not
as light railways, but as the standard
gauge lines of a continent. It is

mistaken policy to exceed 1 in 40
gradients and 400-foot radius curves,
with exceptions, of course.

Should branches allow it, these
limitations could be surpassed.

Metre gauge rails should not be
too light, either, especially as stone
ballast is still the exception ; they
should never be lighter than 45
pounds a yard, as they otherwise
hamper the road's development in no
time. A 60-pound rail will be found
the best all-round rail in Brazil.

All the rolling stock should be,
and the majority is, made up of
bogie stock. The passenger engines
are Moguls (2-6-0), ten-wheel (4-
6-0), or even Pacific (4-6-2) loco-
motives. The Ameiican type metre
gauge locomotive (4-4-0) has too lit-
tle power. Consolidation locomotives
(2-8-0) are the best metre-gauge
lines goods engines, save when extra
power be required.

Such is the outline of the Brazilian
railway system, a still heterogeneous
mass of Government, State and even
municipal railways, the municipality
being very similar to the British
county.

Another complication is due to the
fact that each of these works some
and not all the lines it concedes and
leases the remainder without or with
a guarantee of interest. But we can-
not over-much criticise this variety,
as it is absolutely similar to our own
practice in India, where we also have
State railways, some of which only
the State works, then the native
States lines, and the private com-
panies, and where, moreover, the
"assisted" railways are similar to
Brazil's guaranteed or subsidized
lines.

It is, therefore, a mistake to ex-
amine the railways of Brazil in a
group, as one would those of Italy
or of Germany. Brazil is hardly
smaller than the whole of Europe or
the United States, and is made up of
a number of very autonomical States,
absolutely different and separate in
every respect from each other. The
whole of the basin of the Amazon,

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

for instance, is practically devoid of
railways, though it covers pretty
near the two-thirds of the country.

The railways are distributed as fol-
lows :

State.

Amazone

Acre Territory

Para

Maranhao

Piauhy

Ceara

Northern Rio Grande

Northern Parahyba

Pernambuco

Alagoas

Sergipe

Bahia

Matto Grosso

Goyaz

Minas Geraes

Espirito Santo

Rio and Federal District

Sao Paulo

Parana

Santa Catharina

Southern Rio Grande

Thus the east coast States alone
have the enormous share of 11,185
miles, and the northern States have
none to speak of. Rio and Sao
Paulo take the lead, and are fol-
lowed by Minas and Rio Grande do
Sul. Next come Bahia and Pernam-
buco, and, with a lesser amount still,
Parana and Santa Catharina. And
that is practically all.

Compared to their population, the
order is the same — all but Parana,
with 566 miles of railways for 360,-
000 inhabitants, and Espirito Santo,
with 289 miles for 201,600 inhabi-
tants. Apart from these two States,
no State in Brazil has a mile of rail-
way per 1,000 inhabitants, owing to
their great dissemination, and the
whole of Brazil has not half that.

The United States of America have
about twenty times the railway
mileage of Brazil per square mile
and five times the mileage per 1,000
inhabitants.

The comparison with Europe is
less to Brazil's advantage. Europe
has about four times the population
of the United States and a lesser
railway mileage.

But all these railways have many
points of interest and a brilliant fu-.
ture before them. They are still de-
veloping rapidly, and in the follow-
ing pages I intend giving a general

(To be

description of these railways, being
very sober with regard to the new
lines. Until such lines are actually
opened to traffic they keep on alter-
ing, so I will only quote such lines

Area. Population, 1909. Railways.

Miles.

712,362 240,000

41,200

431,735 652,400 109

172,693 660,000 49

153,369 425,000

39,147 1,000,000 340

21,580 407,200 104

28,062 408,500 152

48,214 1,115,000 566

21,964 649,300 166

14,678 373,100

160,150 2,335,000 820

518,083 157,000

280,627 340,000

215,870 4,277,400 2,517

18,875 201,600 289

26,420 1,880,000 1,648

108,800 2,567,000 2,617

83,100 360,000 566

21,840 405,800 109

88,830 1,350,000 1,133

3,130,761 19,155,000 11,185

as are an almost absolute certainty.

All these railways can be grouped
into five parts :

(i) The Northern system, cover-
ing the Amazon basin and the north-
ern rivers. This group is mostly
building, and comprises a number of
small roads : the Sobral, Baturite,
Madeira & Mamore, etc.

(2) The Great Western Railway
system, in the small northeast States.

(3) The Bahia group: a number
of nearly amalgamated lines in the
north (Central of Bahia, Bahia Sao
Francisco, Timbo & Pripria), and
the Victoria & Minas in the south.

(4) The central group, the most
important of all, and a complete net-
work in itself. It covers the States
of Rio Minas and Sao Paulo, and
comprises principally the following
railways :

Central of Brazil and Leopoldina
Companies, starting from Rio ; West
of Minas (and Goyaz extension) and
the new South Minas Railway ; and
in Sao Paulo, the San Paulo Railway
to the capital, and the three impor-
tant companies : Mogyana, Paulista
and Brazil Railway, the latter stretch-
ing to the limit of Southern Rio
Grande.

(5) The Rio Grande system, al-
most inseparable from those of Uru-
guay and of Entrerios.

continued.)

(fruxxmt topics

ONE of the difficulties continu-
ally occurring in connection
with any effort to remedy
existing conditions in any depart-
ment of life appears in the unwill-
ingness of a large part of the com-
munity to admit that a change in the
present state of affairs is to be con-
sidered. Innovations are condemned
because they are innovations, and
have a hard time in being considered
on their merits, while any radical
modification in ancient methods is
resisted without reason or judg-
ment.

Thus, the introduction of high-
speed motor vehicles on existing
highways is met by attempts to regu-
late their movements, and, in most
instances, to deprive them of a large
part of their advantages in the en-
deavor to make them conform to the
limitations of the vehicles of less
power and lower speed already in
use. The idea that the great advan-
tage of the improved means of trans-
portation should be utilized by pro-
viding a clear way for them seems
altogether secondary, and a disposi-
tion to obstruct and to impede prog-
ress comes immediately to the front.

Such a policy would have deprived
the community of all the enormous
advantages which have followed from
the development of steam railways,

and would have bound us to the in-
conveniences of the stage coach, the
canal packet and the post chaise. It
would have prohibited the electric
railway and the motor 'bus, and it
would have impeded the progress of
the telephone and the aeroplane.

When a conflict arises between the
old and the new, it may well be un-
derstood that a law which, while of
comparatively recent discovery, has
been of eternal existence — the law of
the survival of the fittest — is certain
to make itself observed. The unfit
and the obsolete must give way, not
necessarily to their own destruction,
but certainly to the termination of
their former dominion. In the case
of the dominance of the motor car,
we may recall the incident in the
early history of railways when
George Stephenson, appearing be-
fore a Parliamentary committee, was
asked if it would not be very awk-
ward if a cow should get on the
tracks in front of a locomotive, and
replied that it would be very awk-
ward indeed "for the coo"! The
pedestrian has already found it very
awkward for himself in crossing the
highway filled with rapidly-moving
automobiles, and if he would but
realize that he is powerless to op-
pose the increasing numbers of the
speedy and powerful machines he

CURRENT TOPICS

might be induced to grasp the im-
perative necessity of providing for
himself a highway entirely apart
from that which he formerly con-
trolled, and thus eliminate wholly the
questions which have arisen because
of more recent developments.

A similar situation is doubtless im-
pending in connection with the gen-
eral introduction of aerial naviga-
tion. Real property rights, as they
have been termed, may well be con-
sidered as coming under the defini-
tion that property is that which one
is in a position to defend. Nomi-
nally, its limits may be taken as ex-
tending downward to the centre of
the earth and upward to the skies ;
actually, no man can intelligently
hold himself to be the owner of the
space above his house through which
an aeroplane goes speeding without
so much as saying "by your leave."

When these conditions, to say
nothing of others, are grasped, it
must be admitted that the work of
the engineer is forcing a revision of
the older principles of ownership
which have hitherto been accepted.
This does not mean that confiscation
of existing rights is impending, but
it may be understood to involve such
a modification of former rules of
conduct as shall permit the best de-
velopment of the benefits of inven-
tion and of scientific discovery.

TTENTION is called to the re-
port of one of the English
engine and boiler insurance
companies to the bad design of some
vertical air pumps. One of the
troubles is the great space between
the top of the bucket and the de-
livery valves. This is often several
inches, and it represents so much re-
sistance against the lifting of the
valves to admit air and water from
below.

Then there is often a considerable
slope from the base of the condenser
to the base of the pump, and water
will collect in this deep space to a
depth of several inches, thereby lock-
ing up air in the condenser. The

foot valve of an air pump is some-
times of considerable weight, and this
is a further obstruction to the free
working of the pump. In one case
investigated the total resistance to
the escape of air from the condenser
amounted to 50 inches. Under these
various conditions the working of an
air pump cannot help but be very
irregular. Sometimes the air is
walled back by the intervening
water. Next, a way is broken
through and the air escapes. While
all this is due to bad design, and
should be avoided from the start,
yet some remedy may be effected by
leading a small pipe from the con-
denser so as to enter the air pump
just at the level of the water seal
upon the bucket when the bucket is
in its lowest position. By this pipe
the air will rush from the condenser
into the nominally perfect vacuum
above the bucket. More than this,
the air now drawn in below and
through the bucket will be reduced,
if not quite abolished. With several
inches of water on a bucket, any air
which passes through the bucket
must be considerably delayed. Much
of it may fail to reach the surface
of the water during the upstroke of
the bucket, so that there is air re-
maining in the pump when the
bucket begins to descend, and this
air quite prevents the formation of
a really good vacuum on the next
clown stroke. It must, undoubtedly,
often be the case that the charge in
the pump is not separated into
distinct layers of water and air for
separate delivery. When an air
pump is acting at its best, the bucket
first pushes air through the delivery
valve, and next it discharges foam,
which gradually passes to solid mat-
ter. Should such a pump be run a
little faster no solid matter even will
be discharged. The discharge will
not extend below the foam stratum.
This is why an air pump may some-
times be improved by reducing its
speed so as to permit of better and
more complete separation of air in
the water seal.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

The best bucket has a flat upper
face and no through valves. It is a
solid bucket, which goes down below
the port openings and admits water
above itself, acting as its own valve.
Such, with special shape of base and
foot passages, is the Edwards pump ;
but any air pump may be made solid
and with the ring of ports for water
to enter above, and not through, the
bucket. There is but little time, of
course, for the water to get within
the area of the barrel of the pump
during the brief period which the
bucket spends below the port level.
Perhaps this difficulty underlies the
mechanical propulsion of the water
by the conical base of the Edwards
type bucket. This gives a high-
velocity propulsion to the water,
which is shot rapidly through the
ports and effectually does get a
charge of water into the pump. It
is responsible for a good deal of
splash and foam, and the high speed
rendered possible by the rapid entry
of water is, perhaps, limited by the
foam formation and the non-separa-
tion of the air before the bucket
reaches its top position. Hence the
need for small clearance above the
bucket, so that if a solid layer of
water does form upon it the clearance
shall be less than the depth of the
solid water. There is, then, some-
thing to be said for moderate speeds,
and, as with other matters in me-
chanical engineering, the most satis-
factory design is one in ' which con-
flicting conditions are best compro-
mised into a fair general harmony.

WITH the present talk about
gyroscopes there is accru-
ing the usual misconception
of the average man. It is being said
that the gyroscope will keep, say, a
torpedo in a straight course, and this
is largely true. But it is not true
that when the torpedo has been de-
flected it will return to its original
course. This is quite erroneous. A
gyroscope, by its action, opposes a
powerful resistance to any force
tending to cause it to rotate in a

different plane. But if a force is ap-
plied sufficient to put the gyroscope
in another plane of rotation, the mo-
tor will then offer an equal resistance
against being moved from that plane
also. It will, in fact, always en-
deavor to maintain a straight course ;
but when, put out of it by a superior
force it will accept the situation and
abide by it. Its value evidently is in
reducing the deflections that external
small forces may exert. But obvi-
ously regarding a gyroscope as in-
tensified mass, any external deflecting
force being sufficiently applied will
produce movement — that is to say,
will change the plane of rotation of
the gyroscope. The gyroscope is
not an absolute preventer of deflec-
tion ; it is merely a reducer.

THOSE interested in the me-
chanics or engineering of ord-
nance should study Sir A. T.
Dawson's lecture (the Gustave Canet
Lecture), for it contains much that
is of interest, both historically and
mechanically. The modern gun is
the child of the metallurgical art;
for, owing to the advances in that
art, guns yearly grow more power-
ful per unit of weight. Even up to
1840 cast iron was a gun material.
Then came the steel tube with
wrought iron hoops shrunk on. The
boring of the hoops correctly to size
gave opportunity for good machine
work; but material was faulty even
in 1864, chiefly because it was sought
to make steel of too high a tenacity,
and it would fly to pieces. Now that
steel is reliable, it is not used for
this system of construction by shrink-
ing on heavy rings. The modern
gun is wire-wound, the winding be-
ing put on at a certain calculated ten-
sion. The gun of to-day is an en-
gine of precision, as may be told by
the naval shooting records. Not only
must the gun itself be accurate, but
its charge of explosive must develop
a certain definite force, or a shot
could not be put into the few feet
area of target which can now be hit
at long range time after time.

WALTER M, McFARLAND

A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

IT is an interesting fact that the
Engineer Corps of the United
States Navy has furnished to a
number of great manufacturing es-
tablishments some of the ablest men
who have been placed in charge of
technical and commercial administra-
tion. The subject of our sketch this
month is an excellent example of the
manner in which individual ability,
combined with the engineering train-
ing of the Navy Department, has ad-
vanced in civil practice and resulted
in a degree of success which de-
mands especial notice.

Walter M. McFarland was born
in Washington, D. C, in 1859, and
received his education in the public
schools of his native city, in the
preparatory department of Columbia
University, and at the United States
Naval Academy at Annapolis. It
was in 1875 that he entered the
Naval Academy as a cadet engineer,
and in 1879 he was graduated second
in his class. He was commissioned
as an assistant engineer in 1881, and
after a wide experience in sea service
he was detailed to the Bureau of
Steam Engineering in 1882. From
1883 to 1885 he was detailed from
the navy as assistant professor of
mechanical engineering at Cornell
University, and during the years 1885
and 1886 he was occupied with the
inspection of machinery under con-
struction and with work on prelimi-
nary design for proposed vessels.
From 1889 to 1894 he was again
attached to the Bureau of Steam En-
gineering, having been commissioned
as Past Assistant Engineer in 1891.
In 1898 he was made' Chief Engi-
neer, being the youngest officer for

more than twenty years who had re-
ceived this grade.

In 1897 the subject of the per-
sonnel of the United States Navy
was under special consideration in
connection with proposed legislation,
and the personnel board was as-
sembled by the Secretary of the
Navy to consider and report upon
the question. Mr. McFarland was
made a member of this important
board, and had the honor of acting
as the sole sponsor for the younger
men of his corps. From the first he
was one of the most active and effi-
cient supporters of the amalgamation
scheme, the recommendation of which
was the main result of the delibera-
tions of the board. As a member of
the board he had the special confi-
dence of its presiding officer, Theo-
dore Roosevelt,, then Assistant Secre-
tary of the Navy, and he proved a
powerful advocate of the measure
before the Congressional Committee,
drawing from them the comment
that he was the best-posted man they
had ever examined.

After the passage of the "person-
nel bill" Mr. McFarland was commis-
sioned Lieutenant, and in the same
year he resigned from the naval serv-
ice to enter the employ of the West-
inghouse Electric & Manufacturing
Company as acting vice-president.

During the ten years in which he
has held the responsible charge of
the work of this important business
he has had official supervision of the
large contracts of the company, be-
sides acting as the advisory head in
all the co-operative movements of
this company with the associated
Westinghouse Companies in connec-

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

tion with literature, advertising and
exhibition work. He is well known
as a frequent representative of the
Westinghouse Companies at impor-
tant meetings of engineering societies
and conventions, and has long been
regarded as the official host of the
company at Pittsburg.

On April i, 1910, Mr. McFarland
severed his connection with the West-
inghouse Electric & Manufacturing
Company to accept an official posi-
tion with the Babcock & Wilcox
Company, having his headquarters in
New York City. His wide experi-
ence in naval and marine affairs, as
well as in general engineering, ren-
ders him especially available for the
conduct of a business relating to the
generation of steam, and particularly
in the department of marine boilers,
and thus a field uniting much of his
previous experiences is now open be-
fore him.

He has been a frequent contributor
to the technical press, and the read-
ers of this magazine will remember
his paper upon "The Commercial
Side of Engineering," in which he
emphasized the important fact that a
thing should not be more costly than
the operative conditions demanded,
and that in most instances the say-
ing, "the best is good enough,"
should be replaced by its reversal,
"good enough is best."

Mr. McFarland is a member of the
American Society of Mechanical En-
gineers, and served as vice-president
from 1905 to 1907, and at the pres-
ent time he is vice-president of the
Society of Naval Architects and
Marine Engineers. He is also a
member of the Engineers' Club, of
New York; the Duquesne Club, of
Pittsburg; the Army and Navy Club,
of Washington, and the Army and
Navy Club, of New York.

A. FREDERICK COLLINS
See page 191.

Cassier's Magazine

AN ENGINEERING MONTHLY

Vol. XXXVII!

JUNE, iqiov

No. 2

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

By Lionel Wiener, Technical Secretary to the Rio Grande do Sul Railways

II. THE NORTHERN RAILWAY AND RIVER SYSTEM

The introductory article of this series, published in the May issue of this magazine, describes the
general conditions under which railway development has taken place in the United States of Brazil,
and the plans which are now under consideration for the extensive construction of lines which will
open to the commerce of the world a country nearly as large as the whole of Europe. The present
paper, and those which are to follow, discuss in detail the various systems and show the enormous
opening now already available for British and American capital, and the extent to which these oppor-
tunities are already being grasped. Brazil probably offers one of the greatest examples of undeveloped
natural resources of any portion of the world, and the construction and operation of the various
•systems described in these papers will render it one of the most accessible. — The Editor.

THIS system is the smallest rail-
way and the largest river sys-
tem of the whole of Brazil.
It is hardly a system at all, in fact, as
most lines are still unfinished and
unconnected. But, in my opinion, it
is just now, perhaps, the most inter-
esting to Europeans, and, though its
few lines are widely dispersed, it
•covers an enormous and rich tract of
country : the Amazon, Grao Para,
Goyaz, Maranhao, and Piauhy States,
which are overgrown with forests of
valuable timber and crossed by the
most magnificent of waterways, the
Amazon and its affluents.

This is a portion of South America
that awaits only the building of a
railway system to be opened up and
for people to come to live in it ; and
here, of all places, is an opening for
foreign capital and activity.

The Amazon and its principal af-
fluents are navigable, and several
steamboat companies run up them at
regular intervals ; several are subsi-
dized. Considering these as main
lines, it is necessary to build two

2-1 Copyright, 3910, by The C

classes of railways : the first for con-
necting the lower and the upper
reaches of a river broken by shoots,
rapids, or shallows, which we will
call "trans-rapids lines" ; the second,
for connecting a town or place of
some importance with a neighbour-
ing one situated on an adjacent
stream ; these are the "trans-basin
railways."

Now all important affluents of the
Amazon are navigable all the way
up-stream without a break, with two
exceptions, the Madeira and the To-
cantins.

The Madeira is navigable up to
Sao Antonio, 2,500 miles of un-
broken navigation. Then there is a
stretch of rapids and of falls up to
Pacanova, and beyond, an enormous
upper watershed comprising the Up-
per Madeira, its large tributary, the
Mamore, and many other rivers
adding several hundred miles of
navigable waterways.

The Madeira and Mamore Rail-
way is a trans-rapids line, 216 miles
long, that will connect these naviga-

assier's Magazine Co. 99

IOO

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

ble rivers with each other. It is now
building to the meter gauge across
a most unhealthful stretch of land,
and might have been given up were
it not that the Treaty of Petropolis,
between Brazil and Bolivia, obliges
the former to build the line. The
Guapore, a frontier-stream, runs in-
to the Mamore, whose course lies for
a considerable distance in Bolivia, as
do that of the Beni and the Inambari.
Bolivia has only a westerly outlet
to the coast; the portion east of the
Andes is shut off. The completion
of the Madeira and Mamore Railway
will provide Bolivia with an alterna-

Courtesy of The World's Work.

THE RELATIONS OF THE MADEIEA-M AMORE RAILWAY
TO THE EXTERIOR WORLD

tive route ; an almost unbroken wa-
terway all the way to the Atlantic,
benefiting not Bolivia only but the
Matto Grosso as well.

The line will cost the government
more than £2,000,000. It is leased
to the Madeira and Mamore Railway
Company for sixty years, on condi-
tion that the company pays the gov-
ernment in addition to one-fifth the
net earnings above what is necessary
for paying 12 per cent, dividends ; 5
per cent, of the gross earnings
during the first twenty years ; 10
per cent, during the second score of

years, and 20 per cent, during the
third score.

More than forty-five miles of the
Madeira and Mamore Railway are
already constructed, and the entire
line will be opened by the close of
191 1. The region opened up by this
railway is a particularly rich one,
especially in rubber and other trop-
ical vegetation. In spite of the high
cost of transportation, now about £50
per ton, due to carriage along the
200 miles of roadway before the
completion of the railway, a large
amount of rubber is already exported
from this district. The Aore Terri-
tory, recently sold to Brazil, already
pays in taxes close upon £ 1,000,000,
which gives some idea of the im-
portance of the traffic to be antici-
pated.

The Amazon Steam Navigation
Company carries material for the
railway at a reduced rate of freight ;
£7 i8.y. Sd. for a ton of iron, £9 u.
for a cubic metre of ironmonger)-,
and 14s. for a thousand brick.

North of Brazil Railway. — The
next break of navigability is that of
the Tocantins — not far from its
mouth — between Alcobaca and Praia
da Rainhas, where the North of
Brazil Railway Company is building
a line. The work is easier because
it is nearer the coast than is the
Madeira and Mamore Railway, and
the country is less unhealthful. The
total length is 115 miles, and all
are about to be opened to traffic.

When the line will have reached
Praia da Rainhas the whole of the
State of Goyaz, except the very
south, will have easy communication
with Belem, while the new Gayaz
Railway will reach the Araguay river
from the south Rio and Sao Paulo.

This long line is entirely in the
hands of the North of Brazil Rail-
way Company, the successor to the
"Tocantins and Araguay Rail and
River Company."

A contract, signed in October,
1890, subsidizes both services, the
river part drawing £1,875 (3°
contos) for thirty-six trips per

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

IOI

annum. And this number has not The lines from Praia da Rainhas

been exceeded. upwards will be definitely established

The railway part has a 6 per cent. only upon completion of the railway,

guarantee of interest on a maximum With the opening of these lines the

capital expenditure of £3,012 per Amazon watershed will be complete

mile. and the second class of lines, the

-5o i>>-o I IXQilsay Co:
. Torta Irj'a Railu>a.y Co ■
. £ ax iaS-r-TherVjina Ry

— . (fr^of Weshcrn Ay. System

%ieirS.o y-TZorrairo for.

pSahta. •*- STranciScoR^

Jon Trancisco "Ry-

NORTHERN RAILWAY OF BRAZIL AND PROJECTED CONNECTIONS

The lower part reaches the steam-
ship line, which maintains two steam-
ers plying between Belem and Alco-
paqa. The Rio Araguay is a 126-
ton steamer, 107 registered, going
10 knots; the Itacayuna a 44-ton
boat, 33 registered.

trans-basin ones, should be begun.
None of these is in hand or in pro-
ject, and I wish to point out which,
in my opinion, should be the first
of these ; it is a line from the Upper
Guapore to the Jauru, a tributary of
the Paraguay river. The distance,

102

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

as the crow flies, is no miles. The
object of the line is to connect the
Amazon basin with Rio de la Plata.
It affords an alternative and much
shorter route to Bolivia and Matto
Grosso, and would connect them with
Paraguay and Argentina, thus reach-
ing the coast either by water all
the way down the Rio de la Plata
and its tributaries, or by rail from
Corumba or Aquidauana to the coast,
near Sao Paulo. It has two ad-
vantages over the Madeira and Ma-

Most of the river traffic of the
Amazon and its tributaries is in the
hands of an English company, "The
Amazon Steam Navigation," whose
Brazilian headquarters are in Belem,
Para. Its importance can be gauged
from the fact that the 1902 contract,
still in force, obliges it to cover 235
to 552 miles per annum across a re-
gion larger than half of Europe, and
also devoid of all other means of
communication. From Belem steam-
ers ply to Manaos, 925 miles up-

A BUCYEUS STEAM SHOVEL ON THE MADEIRA AND MAMORE RAILWAY

more line ; it would be shorter, and
therefore cheaper, and whether one
went to Buenos Ayres or to Sao
Paulo one reaches somewhere ; where-
as in Belem immediate exportation is
a necessity.

It would be far more difficult to
connect the Tocantins with the Sao
Francisco or its tributaries, for such
a line would have to cross an im-
portant range of hills ; the Serra de
Sao Domingos or the Serra do Duro.

stream, to Iquitos, in Peru — 2,066
miles of navigation. The length of
the other subsidized lines is :

Baiao 105 miles

Mazagao 481

Madeira :>596 "

Purus 2,557 "

Negro 423

Oyapock 738 "

The fleet comprises thirty-six
steamboats. The Perseverance! and

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

CUTTING OX THE MADEIRA AND MAMt RE RAILWAY

GIRAU FALLS, FROM WEST BANK OF THE MADEIRA RIVER

The obstruction to transport between Bolivia and the coast.

104

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

the Esperanca are close upon 1,000-
ton steamers (922 tons). They have
a speed of 13 knots.

The total tonnage of the fleet is
17,763 and 11,534, registered.

Two classes, as on all Brazilian
river steamers, are aboard, first and
third ; a minimum speed of 10 knots
is stipulated in the contract.

The 1907 receipts were £27,804,
from the 9,753 passengers, and £63,-

Belem, the company's headquarters,
and Manaos, up-stream, are almost
seaports, with a traffic rapidly in-
creasing.

In 1905 Manaos was visited by
1,130 vessels; in 1907 by 1,589. Im-
portation consists of 49,000 tons of
coal and 75,000 tons of other mer-
chandise, carried by 133 vessels from
Europe and America, besides 30,000
tons of goods from Brazil, and 24,-

INTERIOR OF POWER HOUSE AT PARA, IN COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION

192 from the 15,379 tons °f goods,
besides the annual £25,445 subsidy.
Nearly 4,000 passengers were car-
ried on the Manaos Line, half in
each class ; 2,000 on the Iquitos Line,
662 first and 1,318 third; on the
Baiao Line, 469 first and 483 third ;
on the Manzagao Line, 451 first and
313 third; on the Rio Purus, 194 and
424; on the Rio Madeira, 386 and
680; on the Rio Oyapock, 147 and
178; on the Rio Negro, 201 and 144
only.

000 tons from up-stream, two-thirds
of which are rubber.

Belem harbour has been consider-
ably improved by the new owners,
the Port of Para Company ; the
works were begun in 1907 and esti-
mated at £6,876,791. But several
alterations have increased the cost,
particularly the greater depth to
which it is dredged, 30 feet and 10
feet, where the river steamers only
have access.

There is a short-meter °-aus:e line

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

THE AVENIDA 16 DE NOVEMBRO, PARA

from Belem to Braganca on the
coast. It is 156 miles long, with a
10-mile branch to Pinheiro.

The Rios Itapicuru and Parnahyba,
next to the Amazon, are navigable
from the coast far inland. Parallel to
these rivers the Sobral Railway, from
Camucim to Ipu, and the Baturite
Railway from Fortaleza, or Ceara, to
Quixeramubim, have been built "in-
wards/' All these rail and water-

ways cease 200 miles, as the crow
flies, from the coast, except the Par-
nahyba river route.

The end of the Itapicuru for navi-
gation purposes is Caxias. This
town has been connected by a trans-
basin railway of 49 miles, with the
nearest port on its neighbour, the
Parnahyba river — Therezina. The
line ceases on the hither bank at the
town of Cajazeiras.

io6

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

The other lines have no connec-
tion inland. A recent government
commission, therefore, was appointed,
to look into the matter, and decided
that the following" lines should be
built :

From Sao Luiz, on the coast, to
Caxias ; to provide the town, which
already has river connection with the
coast, with rail connection as well.

From Therezina to the Sobral ex-
tension, a trans-basin line — the most
suitable junction seems to be Cra-
theus. This line has been contracted

Taken together, these new lines
form a railway having substantially
an eastern and western course, with
a northerly bend, so as to reach the
seacoast in Sao Luiz.

SAO LUIZ, CAXIAS AND THEREZINA.

The Sao Luiz and Caxias line will
be 246 miles long, and will be use-
ful to the towns of both Caxias and
Therezina, whose railway will be-
come an extension of the new line.
The gradients do not rise above one

S. S. ENGLAND, LOADED WITH 5,000 TONS OF COAL AND DRAWING 21 FEET OF WATER. AT NEW WHARF,

PORTO VELHO

to the South American Railroad
Company in 1909.

From Cratheus to Quixaramubim ;
to connect the Sobral and Baturite
Railway extensions with each other.

A railway from the Baturite ex-
tension to the Great Western rail-
way system toward Pesqueira, the
present terminal of the Central of
Pernambuco. This line, however, will
be harder to build, because there is
a difficult part to get over or through,
the knot of the mountain ranges that
form the frontier and that meet near
Triumpho.

in forty, nor do the curves fall be-
neath 500 feet radius.

Capital expenditure, including a
short branch to Itaqui, is estimated
at £1,076,053.

The line will pass on to terra firma
on a bridge 3,300 feet long ; the
town of Sao Luiz, of about 50,000
inhabitants, being in a kind of
island formed by estuaries of the
river.

The Caxias and Cajazeira Railway
is leased by the government to the
General Company for Maranhao's
improvement, with the same guaran-

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

107

PAYMASTER S PARTY ON TRAIL IN THE BRAZILIAN FOREST

tee of interest as is that of the North
of Brazil.

The receipts in 1908 were £7,253;
expenses reached £8,657; leaving a
deficit of £1,404, with a ratio of
expenses to gross earnings of 119.35
per cent. The new lines are likely
to improve the situation, together
with the development of the Sao
Luiz Harbour, which is the com-
pany's property.

The rolling stock consists of only
four locomotives, three coaches and
twenty-four wagons.

The Sobral Railway starts from
Camocim, on the coast, and runs to
Sobral and Ypu, 135 miles.

It was begun by the government
in 1878, and was built to give labour
to the victims of the terrible droughts
that distress that part of the country.
Sobral was reached in 1882, and the
extension to Ypu was proceeded with
the next year.

The line is an easy one. The
steepest gradients are one in fifty-
five, and the radius of the curves
has been limited to 600 feet.

Two short branches will be built

soon; one from Gran j a to Vicosa,
the other from Carire to Sao Bene-
dicto. Their length is 35 and 28
miles respectively.

Since 1898 the line has been leased
to Saboia, Albuquerque & Co., and
luckily for the government it had
been worked at a loss ever since its
opening and had cost the government
£60,812 in working expenses. Since
1898 the line has continually been
worked at a profit, the ratio of ex-
penses to gross earnings being 51.7
per cent, in 1908.

The company owns ten locomo-
tives, all built by the Baldwin Loco-
motive Works, twelve coaches and
fifty-nine goods wagons.

An extension further inland is
building, and will be incorporated
with the existing line. This exten-
sion, from Ypu to Cratheus, is 68
miles long. Its construction was con-
tracted for to the present lessees in
1906 at £2,995 Per mile.

The company pays a rent of 4 per
cent of the gross earnings, besides
an annuity.

The Baturite Railwav is the most

io8

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

CARLOAD OF LOCOMOTIVE DRIVING WHEELS AT PORTO VELHO

eastern of these short penetrating
lines. It is 198 miles long to Girau,
with two short branches to Alfan-
dega and to Maranguape ; together
7 miles.

This railway had been started by a
private company; but in 1878, when

famine-relief works were most neces-
sary, the government bought back
the line. Twenty-five miles of it had
been built, and the government con-
tinued the construction work.

In i88x the line was opened from
Fortaleza to Baturite, 68 miles.

A BAY CITY LOCOMOTIVE-CRANE IN SERVICE AT PORTO VELHO

BTHE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

109

branches included. It has been American, from the Carnegie Steel

slowly continued ever since, reaching Company.

Quixada, the 117th mile, in 1891 ; The cost of the original 198 miles

f/firtc U A D O FT

ft* 4% -

Courtesy of The W&rld's Work.

MAP SHOWING THE MANNER IN WHICH THE MADEIRA AND MAMORE RAILWAY WILL OPEN UP THE INTERIOR

Quixeramobim, the 147th mile, in
1894, and Senador Pompeu, the 130th
mile, in 1900.

The line was hard to build, cross-
ing the Quixaba granite ridge, on the
banks of the Satia, an affluent of the
Banahuiha river. It then passed be-
tween the Urucu and Serra Negra
mountains into the wide plain be-
tween the Sipo and Cachoeira ranges.
It lies nearly entirely in the water-
shed of the Jaguarhyba, but crosses
it diagonally until it reaches its
source, where connection with the
Great Western Railway is to take
place.

This is not the "Baturite" proper,
but its extension, which was decided
upon in 1906, from Girau to Quix-
ara, a distance of 105 miles. The
greater part is already completed and
open to traffic. The rails used are

has been £1,193,639. The line,
leased to Messrs. Novis & Porto, is
a profitable undertaking. The gross
earnings were £77,922 in 1908; ex-
penses, £ 56,579 ; leaving a margin
of £21,343. The ratio of expenses
to gross receipts is, therefore, 72.61
per cent.

The company pays the govern-
a £1,250 annuity, 10 per cent, of
the gross earnings, and 20 per cent,
of the net earnings.

There was a good deal of bridg-
ing to be done ; the longest is only
660 feet, with a 210-foot span.

The company owns 137 wagons,
28 coaches and 25 locomotives, all
of American make. The latter' are
typical, and were built by the Bald-
win Locomotive Works of Phila-
delphia.

The specifications of the consolida-

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

tion and the io-wheel
are as follows :

locomotives These locomotives burn wood ex-

clusively.

DETAILS OF BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVES ON THE BATUR1TE RAILWAY

Consolidation.

Gauge Metre

Class 10.26 E.

Cylinders Diameter 16"

Stroke 20"

Boiler Diameter 52"

Fire box Length 83 15/i6 "

Width 27"

Depth, front 48£"

Depth, back 40f"

Tubes Number 157

Diameter 2"

Length 11' 7f "

Heating surface Fire box 87 sq. f t.

Tubes 948 sq. f t.

Total 1,035 sq. ft

Grate area 15.5 sq. ft.

Wheels Driver's diameter .

Truck wheels diameter
Wheelbase Driving

Rigid

Total

Weight Drivers.

37"
24i"
11' 9"
11' 9"

18' 7"
.65,445 lbs.

On truck 7,800 lbs.

Total 72,245 lbs.

Ten-Wheel

Type.
Metre

10.24 D.

15"

18"

52"

79 Vie"

27|"

49V

47}"

147

12' i"
86 sq. ft.
937 sq. ft.
1,023 sq. ft.
15.1 so. ft.
42" "
24J"
10' 9"
10' 9"
19' 10"
54,200 lbs.
17,500 lbs.
71,710 lbs.

These engines, as usual, in Amer-
ican-built locomotives, have steel
boilers and fireboxes and iron tubes.
They both have straight boilers, with
radial staying, carrying 160 pounds
pressure. The sheets are half an
inch thick.

The water-space dimensions are
2^/2 inches in front, 2}^ inches at
the sides, and 23/2 inches at the
back.

The tenders are carried on two
four-wheel trucks, with 28-inch
wheel. The tank capacity is 1,800
gallons, and the fuel capacity two
cords of wood.

Both the Baturite and the Sobral
railways, started as relief lines, have
a fine future before them ; the more
so as, owing to the help of the States
they serve, both lines are rapidly
improving.

CONSTRUCTION WORK ON THE MADEIRA AND MAMORE RAILWAY

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

i ii

A BRIDGE ON THE MADEIRA AND MAMORE RAILWAY

The Parnahyba Steam Navigation
Company has been subsidized by the
government. The Parnahyba river
is a most important line of com-
munication, stretching, as it does, to
the very depth of the State of

Piauhy. Two steamer lines start
from Therezina : the one up-stream
to Floriano, the other down to the
river mouth at Parnahyba Town.

The company's eight steamers
covered 18,120 miles in 1907, carry-

TEMPORARY BRIDGE ACROSS JACY-PARANA, LOOKING NORTH

112

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

STONE-CRUSHER AND ENGINE, ALSO CONTRACTORS OFFICE, PORTO VELHO

ing 1,975 passengers and 2,298 tons sidy at £6,000, and the monthly

of goods. trips at four ; down-stream, two,.

The receipts were £ 19,874. up river, and an extra trip along

The 1907 contract fixed the sub- the coast westward to Tutoya in con-

PORTO VELHO, LOOKING NORTH FROM RIVER-BANK, SHOWING IGARAPE DE CANDELARIA, WHARF, SAWMILL,

OIL PLANT, AND S. S. ENGLAND

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

PORTO VELHO. DERANGEMENT OF PILING OF HIGH-WATER WHARF, CAUSED BY SLIDES IN RIVER-BANK

nection with the steamer of the Bra-
zilian Lloyd Company.

Such is the present state of the
northern rail-and-river system ; only
an embryo as yet if one considers
the enormous tract of country it
is called upon to serve, but al-

ready an important one, considering
the energy expended in creating it.
Still, an enormous amount is to be
done, and new lines are being pushed
vigorously ; that is why this region,
of all others, has such splendid open-
ings for capital and enterprise.

PORTO VELHO. HAULING BOILERS TO POWER HOUSE, AND MARCONI WIRELESS TELEGRAPH STATION

2-2

THE ELECTRIC DRIVING OF COTTON -PICKING

MACHINERY

By Albert Walton

AFTER the cotton bale has been
opened by the hand-cutting
of the steel bands which were
put on in the compress it is found
to consist of rough layers of a more
or less compact nature, their long
confinement under pressure having
wadded them into a tough mass.
Bits of leaves and particles of seeds
and husks are present, together with
a certain amount of sand and grit.
Before the cotton can be carded,
drawn and spun its fibres must be
separated from one another and from
this grit and other foreign matter.
The knotty tufts must be opened out
and the whole brought to a clean
and fluffy condition. To do this, im-
portant but rough-work "picking"
machinery is provided in all cotton
mills. These are the coarsest and
most massive machines in the entire
mill and, through long experience,
have become well standardized, the
usually accepted sequence being as
follows, though some variations in
the processes exist to accomplish
certain ends in mills whose product
is out of the ordinary :

1. Bale breaker, or hopper bale
opener.

2. Opener.

3. Breaker.

4. Intermediate.

5. Finisher.

The opener and breaker are quite
frequently combined as one machine,
but not always. The functions of
these various machines are all very
similar. The bale opener breaks the
compact layers up into tufts, still more
or less compact, which are further
broken up in the opener, where also
the first cleaning action takes place.

114

A suction fan in the breaker draws
the fleece from the opener in a con-
tinuous stream through a broad, flat
flue or "trunk," the rate of motion
being slow enough to allow much
of the heavier dust to settle into
slots or pockets, while the cotton
passes forward. The breaker re-
peats the process of the opener,
further opening the tufts and separ-
ating the fibres, while, at the same
time, cleaning them. Both of these
machines make use of rapidly re-
volving beaters in an iron cage. The
bottom of the cage is a grid, which
allows the dirt to be driven through,
while too finely spaced to permit the
tangled fibres to pass. The cotton
is fed to the beater in a rough
blanket, about 40 inches wide. This
is broken up by the beater blades
and drawn from the cage by a
second suction fan, formed into a
sheet and rolled up about an iron
mandrel. This roll is called a "lap"
and any of the machines which form
such rolls are called "lappers."

Inasmuch as one of these laps will
eventually be drawn out and spun
into many miles of fine yarn, it is
desirable to secure, even at this early
stage, great cleanliness and uni-
formity. With this end in view four
of these laps are now fed simul-
taneously to a third machine, called
an intermediate. This quadruple
sheet is again beaten apart and again
spread out and wound up as a
cleaner and more uniform lap. With
the thoroughness characteristic of a
cotton mill this process is again re-
peated by feeding four of the laps
from this intermediate into a simi-
larly constructed machine, called a
finisher. The lap formed on the

COTTON-PICKING MACHINERY

FIG. 1. DIAGRAM SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF ESSENTIAL PARTS OF AN OPENER PICKER WITH INCLINED

TRUNK TO BREAKER ON THE FLOOR ABOVE

finisher is about 40 inches wide and
16 inches in diameter, contains
about 50 yards of loosely laid cot-
ton, about half an inch thick, and
weighs within very close limits about
45 pounds. A variation in weight of
over 1 per cent, from a fixed figure
is enough to throw the lap out and
necessitate its passing through the
finisher a second time.

With this machine the rough uni-
fying and cleaning process is com-
pleted and the finer work begins, the
lap passing on from here to the
cards and other machines of the later
processes. With this explanation
and the diagrammatic sketches, what
follows may be more readily com-
prehended by those unfamiliar with
the machines themselves.

ESTABLISHED METHODS OF DRIVING
PICKERS.

For half a century pickers have
been driven in the same fashion. A
long belt from the line shaft passes
to tight and loose pulleys on a
countershaft, which is part of the
machine itself and upon which is
carried the large driving pulley,
which belts to the small pulley
on the beater. This high-speed coun-
tershaft is a necessity, since the line
shaft runs at a relatively low speed,

while the beater requires from 1,100
to 1,500 revolutions per minute. The
countershaft usually runs about 500
revolutions per minute, and, in addi-
tion to serving as a means of speed
multiplication, serves as the point of
control, the machine being stopped
and started by the motion of a small
handle on the side of the superstruc-
ture operating a shipper fork, which
controls the position of the belt on
tight or loose pulley.

The picker is normally started but
twice a day — morning and noon — its
operation being practically continu-
ous from then till shut down for
noon or night. In the first two
stages of the process (opener and
breaker), the action is entirely con-
tinuous except for accidental clogg-
ing of the cotton. In the last two
(intermediate and finisher) the de-
sirability of producing laps of a uni-
form weight has made necessary the
provision of an automatic device for
stopping the "feed" after a certain
number of revolutions have been
made by the rolls forming the lap.
This occurs about every 8 minutes,
but at this time the main belt is
not shifted and the counter, beater
and fans, comprising half the work-
ing load, continue to revolve. In
some mills this is a source of waste

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 2. DIAGRAM OF ESSENTIAL PARTS OF BREAKER-PICKER RECEIVING COTTON THROUGH TRUNK

FROM OPENER

of power, but in as many the work is
so nicely timed that the completed
lap is removed and the feed started
for a new lap in a very few seconds
after the automatic stop motion has
acted.

DISADVANTAGES OF PRESENT METHOD-

The disadvantages of the present
drive are four- fold. It has an ele-
ment of danger, is inefficient and
lacking in neatness, and puts the ma-
chine under undue operating strains..

4- Lo-ps Trorry prertous ma.cnin*- .

JLap .

FIG. 3. DIAGRAM OF INTERMEDIATE AND FINISHER PICKER

COTTON- PICKING MACHINERY

117

FIG. 4. WESTINGHOUSE NO. 4 B. T. TEXTILE TYPE MOTOR AND KITSON ONE-BEATER FINISHED

It is a source of danger, because the
high-speed belt, from counter to
beater, runs over an unguarded pul-
ley at about the level of the opera-
tive's hands and between him and
parts of the machine which must be
handled. It is inefficient primarily
because the picker room is a bad
place for a belt drive, and secondar-
ily, because this drive in particular
is a bad one. Every belt in a picker
room has to be "carded" or cleaned
of its accumulation of lint very fre-
quently. On the belts from line shaft
to line shaft and from line to counter
this is both bothersome and risky,
while on the belt from counter to
beater it is frequently dangerous.
Yet before the cleaning time has
come around again the belts are
lined with lint and are again liable
to be slipping badly. To reduce this
slippage excessive tensions are used,
causing undue wear on all parts so
driven. This is of importance on
the beater bearings not alone because
of the cost of replacement but be-
cause of the resulting change in the
adustment of the distance from
the heater blades to the nip between
the rolls, thus affecting the work
done by the picker.

Not only does the lint collect on
the belts and pulleys, however; the
air is full of it and large quantities

settle on the countershaft superstruc-
ture and the overhead shafting and
hangers, the belts carrying it from
point to point. It drains the oil
reservoirs and clogs the boxes, and
for successful operation should be
cleaned off at least once a day and
sometimes more frequently. This
necessitates clambering over the ma-
chines after quitting-time and is an
item in picker-room maintenance that
might well be dispensed with.

Power is used to no advantage
when belts slip, but even where no
slippage is occurring this system con-
sumes quantities of power in its
tight belts and high-speed shafts,
amounting in the best of installa-
tions to 25 per cent, of the total
power delivered to the room. Of
prime importance, however, to the
mill man is the item of production.
It is a very rare case indeed in
which the beater shafts will be found
to be at the speed they are designed
to run. The importance of this is
understood when it is realized that
the feeding parts and the lap rolls
are driven directly from this beater
shaft, thus being affected directly by
any change in speed of this part, a
falling off meaning a proportional
loss in production of the machine.
In one well-known mill in America
the following speed readings were

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 5. SECTION OF A FINISHER PICKER IN COURSE OF ERECTION, WITH GENERAL ELECTRIC MOTOR

DRIVING A KITSON PICKER WITH MORSE SILENT CHAIN

actually taken on beater shafts said
to be running at 1,300 revolutions
per minute :

1,212

I-095

1,198

1,185

1,196

1,193

1,180

1,202

1,190

1,115

1,087

1,080

1,102

1,140

1,196

1,192

1,188

Average 1,172

1,160

In this case five belts intervened
between the source of power, a pair
of large water-wheels, and the beater
shafts. Since this includes the two
belts on the picker, it will be seen
that the drive was very direct and
that in the average mill this number
of belts will generally be found ex-
ceeded rather than reduced.

GROUP DRIVE WITH ELECTRIC MOTORS

Only a slight amelioration of these
conditions was effected when the
electric motor was belted to the line
shaft of the picker room, since the
objectionable elements still remain.
However, this was a step in the right
direction. The picker room is always
capable of supplying more cotton
than the mill needs, so it usually
works an eight or nine hour day,
while the mill is running one or two
hours more. The electric drive per-
mitted the stopping of this section in-
dependently of the rest of the mill,
so that cleaning-up could be finished
by the usual quitting time, as well as
effecting a saving in friction losses.

With this system we still have all
the belts and speed fluctuations of
the direct-engine drive, and all its
other drawbacks. The introduction
of electricity into the room has, how-
ever, made possible the use of the

COTTON-PICKING MACHINERY

119

individual motor, which, as we will
show, can be made to eliminate, at
once, all the undesirable features of
the old-fashioned drive. In addition
to this it introduces two entirely
new items into picker driving, which
are attracting much attention and in-
terest. The drive in all of its ap-
plications is a simple one, yet one
that has required not a little experi-
mentation to perfect. There are
three different methods of applying
the motor to its work, no one of
which best fits all cases, any one of
them being used as occasion demands
only after a thorough investigation
by a capable engineer. The motor
may be placed on the ceiling above
the picker and connected by belt to
the beater shaft without intermedi-
ate reduction, or it may be mounted
on a bracket on the picker side and
drive through a silent chain or, again,
it may be placed directly upon the
beater shaft without any transmis-
sion device whatever. Each drive
has its distinct peculiarities, the ad-
vantages of which we will discuss
separately.

BELT DRIVE FROM INDIVIDUAL MOTOR

While mounting the motor on the
ceiling and belting down to the
beater shaft has much to recommend
it, it still retains one of the uncertain
elements of the old drive — the lint-
covered leather belt. A comparison
of the two drives will quickly show,
however, that the change is greater
than this bare statement would im-
ply, for, while all belts in a picker
room are subject to slippage from
lint, the conditions under which the
belt to the beater shaft runs are
greatly improved. The old drive was
nearly vertical and the distance be-
tween pulley centers was less than
six feet, in addition to which the
ratio of pulley diameters was about
three to one, making, all in all, one
of the most unsatisfactory belt drives
imaginable. With the substitution of
the motor for the counter we get a
12-foot drive which can be arranged
at an angle from the vertical, the

FIG. 6. SPECIAL WESTINGHOUSE PICKER MOTOR

WITH PICKER BEARING AN INTEGRAL PART
OF MOTOR

pulley ratio being nearly one to one.
Thus, while a lint-covered belt is still
retained, belt-wrap is greatly im-
proved, excessive belt tension is
thereby avoided, and a more prac-
tical angle of belt inclination made
possible. The costly and objection-
able countershaft superstructure is
eliminated and with it go all the
overhead belting and shafting in the
room. The motor being located on
the ceiling is both an advantage and
a drawback. It is out of the worst
dust, yet is, by the same token, out
of reach for inspection and cleaning.
Similarly, while the belt is a source
of slippage and loss of production,
and carries lint up to the motor, it
also provides a certain flexibility of
transmission which may be deemed
very desirable in certain cases. Where
pickers are liable to choking or clog-
ging a certain degree of protection to
the feed gears is accorded just as
with the old drive by the tendency
of the belt to slip and on severe
stoppages to run off the pulley en-
tirely. This can, however, be taken
care of more satisfactorily by cir-
cuit breakers in the motor wiring,
as will be explained later. Neverthe-
less, after all is said and done, the
belt remains with this system an ele-
ment of weakness and danger, and
this is true whether the motor be

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 7. A PICKER ROOM DRIVEN BY THE OLD SYSTEM WITH BELTS AND SHAFTING

placed on the ceiling or on a stand
similar to the countershaft stand, as
has been done in some cases. Only
half the step has been taken and not
all the possibilities of the individual
drive have been realized. To gain
the full advantage of the change the
even rotative speed of the motor
should be transmitted to the beater
without chance of slippage. To ac-
complish this, three possibilities
present themselves — gears, chain and
direct connection. Gears, so far as we
know, have never been tried, and it
seems unlikely that they would oper-
ate successfully, owing to the high
speeds of rotation. Both of the
other methods have been tried and
are in operation at the present time.

CHAIN DRIVE

For such machines as cannot be
driven by direct connection, owing
to considerations of speed, a silent
power chain forms a convenient
method of transmitting the power
without possibility of slip or loss of

production. The motor is placed on
a bracket on the side of the picker,
either on a level with the beater shaft
and in front of it, or back of the
shaft and down under the apron or
corresponding part of the machine.
In this drive we have the motor at
a convenient level for inspection and
oiling, but also in a very dusty lo-
cation. With present "textile-type"'
motors this latter consideration is of
little importance, since the construc-
tion is dustproof throughout and
needs little cleaning. The chain can
be enclosed and danger from this
source eliminated. A circuit breaker
is placed in the motor circuit when
clogging is of sufficiently common
occurrence to warrant it. The
clogging puts a heavy load upon the
motor, which instantly draws a heavy
current from the line tripping the
putomatic circuit breaker and cut-
ting off the power. The motor at
once comes to rest and all strain is
avoided. Thus, while the drive is
unyielding and permits no slip, the

COTTON-PICKING MACHINERY

121

strain beyond which it is desired not
to go can be predetermined and the
device arranged to cut out at that
point.

We are now certain of our picker
speed remaining at the desired maxi-
mum, have eliminated all the over-
head v/ork in the room and the clean-
ing incident to its maintenance and
have obviated the liability to break-
age, due to choking of the cotton,
hut we still have a transmission ele-
ment, the elimination of which is a
step still further in advance.

DIRECT CONNECTION

Desirable as is direct connection,
it is not possible to accomplish the
hest results by its application in all
cases. The method is the acme
-of simplicity and efficiency. The
superstructure is removed, as in the
previous cases, and the eight or ten-
inch pulley taken from the beater
shaft. This leaves one end of this
shaft clear, with the exception of a
small pulley, which drives the fan
near the bottom of the picker. This
fan drive is transferred to the other

side of the picker by removing the
fan shaft and replacing it "end for
end," this being easy of accomplish-
ment, since the fan is held on the
shaft only by set screws. With the
driving pulley for this fan now on
the other end of the beater shaft we
have one end entirely free of pul-
leys and extending 10 inches beyond
the end of the large bearing hous-
ing whose outer end is itself some 6
or 7 inches beyond the straight side
of the frame. There is thus plenty
of room to place a motor armature
on this shaft extension and to so
mount the stationary "fields," or
primary, that the armature will re-
volve freely within it. The shaft is
rigid in the extreme, being not less
than 2)4, inches in diameter, and no
bearings are required on the motor
itself. The motor frame, resting se-
curely on a cast iron bracket bolted
to the picker side, touches the arma-
ture or shaft at no place, merely sur-
rounding it and causing it to re-
volve in its accustomed place and
with the usual clearance between
stator and rotor. Although this

^B *^\. ■

■jpPW^ L**-* «. »■■■/!

-4'

FIG. 8. THE SAME ROOM AS SHOWN IN FIG. 7, AFTER THE INSTALLATION OF INDIVIDUAL MOTORS

122

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 9. DETAIL OF WESTINGHOUSE PICKER MOTOR, SHOWING ROTOR ON BEATER SHAFT

clearance is relatively small, it is
sufficient, because the beater shaft is
held in a perfectly central position
by two heavy bearings more than 40
inches apart, and because considera-
tions of mechanical strength have
made it necessary to use so liberal
a shaft with the old belt drives. It
is not only not necessary to cut or
alter the beater shaft in any way,
but it is not desirable to do so, since
it is frequently necessary to reverse
the beater shaft end for end in its
bearings, so as to bring into play the
reverse edges of the blades. When
both edges of the beater are dulled
by service it is removed and sharp-
ened. The motor must be so ar-
ranged that it can be easily removed,
just as the pulley was formerly taken
off, and the shaft must be left of
standard diameters, so pulleys and
motor are interchangeable and can
be placed on either end.

For this drive an automatic circuit
breaker is used if the work demands
its installation. If choking of the
beater or calender i? a remote pos-

sibility, an ordinary oil-immersed
textile type switch is used. If the
cycle of operations is such that the
lap may be completed while the at-
tendant is busy elsewhere, and the
machine thereby be allowed to run
idle from time to time for any con-
siderable period, the switch or circuit
breaker can be attached to the same
lever by which the feed is automati-
cally disconnected, so that the power
may also be cut off, thus affecting a
saving in this direction. Usually the
work is so arranged that the oper-
ator is at hand upon the completion
of each lap to remove it instantly
and start the feed for another.

Unfortunately it is not possible to
design polyphase alternating-current
motors to run at all speeds. The
nature of the motor confines the de-
signer to certain fixed speeds and
these are, in the usual American
plant, 1,750, or 1,150 revolutions per
minute for 60 cycles, or the latter
for 40 cycle plants. Much diver-
gence of opinion exists as to the
best speed at which to run beaters,

COTTON-PICKING MACHINERY

123

but without radical change of design
it seems to be conceded that 1,750
revolutions are too fast for good
results, although direct connection to
a motor of this speed was, we un-
derstand, attempted by an over-en-
thusiastic advocate of the drive. On
the other hand, common practice
with belts seems to indicate a speed
somewhere between 1,350 and 1,500
revolutions on the last two machines
of the picker room, and from 800 to
1,200 on the others, with a large
majority running near the latter

and well-known mills in New Eng-
land have just installed this method
of drive on a total of 175 pickers,
on practically all of which the beaters
were running from 1,300 to 1,400
revolutions per minute. In both of
these mills complete belt and shaft-
ing drive has been thrown out and
first cost has not entered the prob-
lem in either case. In one mill the
drive replaces engine drive, and the
predominating consideration was one
of speed, the slippage in transmis-
sion having proved excessive and

FIG. 10. A LARGE PICKER ROOM DRIVEN BY DIRECT-CONNECTED MOTORS

figure. However, in many cases
there is no good reason to suppose
that 1,150 turns will not produce as
good results as the higher speeds,
which have been maintained largely
as an unquestioned matter of habit.
It has been found on certain staples
and grades that a slower speed is
an advantage, and, in other instances,
that at the lower speeds no difference
in the cleaning and beating was per-
ceptible, the rate of feed in pounds
per minute being maintained the
same. As a result, two very large

very erratic. In the second the de-
termining factor was one of power
economy and general efficiency, the
direct drive replacing a belt drive
from two 150-horse-power motors
and showing a power saving that
will pay for the change in about four
years, not counting the credit items
of the two motors and the scrap
value of belts, shafting and machine
parts.

The broad experience gained in
equipping these mills and the success
met with have induced the electric

124

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 11. VIEW OF PICKER ROOM WITH BELT DRIVE, SHOWING MASS OF OVERHEAD WORK OBSTRUCTING

LIGHT FROM WINDOWS

FIG. 12. VIEW OF ABOVE PICKER ROOM AFTER INSTALLATION OF INDIVIDUAL ELECTRIC DRIVE

7^*v/f-

COTTON-PICKING MACHINERY

U. S. PATENT OFFICI

125

companies to perfect a motor for
this class of work. The essential
parts of the "picker motor" are the
same as the standard textile-type mo-
tors, but it was found that the task
of aligning the stator of the motor
with the rotor was rather a painstak-
ing one, although once in the proper
position it required little attention
and no realigning for many months.
Nevertheless, to eliminate this fea-
ture and to secure a more perfect
bearing than is used on the usual
picker, the new motor is provided
with a special end-bracket with a
large babbitted, ring-oiling, dustproof
bearing incorporated rigidly as part
of the motor frame. This replaces
the picker bearing and is bolted on
through the same holes as were pre-
viously used. The motor rests on an
adjustable stand, shown in the pho-
tographs, and the bearing is sup-
ported on the usual shelf provided
for the picker bearing. Thus the
alignment of stator and rotor is fixed
and permanent, and the installation
becomes a very simple matter. The
bearing is made to fit any of the
standard makes of pickers and will
be used in all future installations.

The direct-connected drive is so
eminently desirable that it is expected
that it will be applied more generally
as time goes on. In conversation re-
cently with the "road man" of one
of the leading manufacturers of
pickers the writer was informed that
the tendency, both North and South,
is very markedly toward lower speeds
on the beaters, 1,000 turns being now
much more common than it was five
years ago, and 1,400 turns cor-
respondingly more rare. It is found
that the higher speeds damage the
fibres without effecting any greater
cleaning. It. is possible to beat the
cotton so fast that the dust has time
to fall through the slots, but is car-
ried on with the fibres to the screens
and lap rolls. This tendency toward
lower speeds will greatly accelerate
the adoption of the direct drive with
motors of 1,150 revolutions per
minute.

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126

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

One interesting feature of the de-
velopment of the individual drive for
picking machinery has been the af-
fording of an opportunity to secure
what it pleases our fancy to desig-
nate as "inside information," by
which we mean reliable data as to
what is going on within the machine.
This is an item previously impos-
sible to get at. It cannot be secured
from a group of machines because
the averaging effect of this method
hides the individual characteristics of
each machine. A power scale is too
uncertain and even the usual indi-
cating wattmeter, with a test motor,
gives only an inkling of the fluctua-
tions. The accompanying curves were
drawn by a Westinghouse graphic
recording wattmeter and show ac-
curately, and in detail, the power of
three stages of the picking process,
the breaker with automatic feeder,
the intermediate and the finisher.

DISCUSSION OF CURVES.

The breaker curve records the
power history of a Westinghouse
5-horse-power motor driving through
a Morse silent chain to the beater
shaft of a 40-inch Kitson breaker
lapper with automatic feeder and
preparer. It is a machine with one
three-bladed beater, with one fan and
one cage section, and a lap-head for
a 40-inch lap. The automatic "stop-
motion" was disconnected, the feed-
ing being uninterrupted and the lap
being allowed to roll up until re-
moved by the attendant.

The chart represents the run of an
entire day, the heavy vertical lines
denoting the hours as marked at the
bottom, the fine horizontal lines
showing the scale of power taken by
the motor. It will be noted that the
motor was started about 6.07 A. M.,
and that for about three minutes
the power required was only about
1.8 kilowatts while the motor was
running only the fan and the beater.
When the feed was started and the
beater began to break up the cotton
the power rose to about 3 kilowatts.
Immediately an irregular fluctuation

set in, due to the irregularity in the
amount of cotton fed to the beater
and the toughness of the masses.
The feed was shut off for an in-
stant at 6.20, but was quickly started
again. It then ran continuously un-
til 10.42, when the motor was stopped
for eight minutes to make adjust-
ments. The feed was stopped twice
between 11 and noon. At 12.42 the
motor was again started and the feed
thrown on at 12.45. In the after-
noon the feed was stopped three
times, but the motor ran until 5.03
P. M., when it was shut down for
the day.

It is noticeable that at more or less
regular intervals the power is reduced
below the average, as shown by the
lines projecting below the broadband
of the record. This was caused by
the removal o>f the lap, when the at-
tendant judged it was large enough
to be taken off. To do this the
pressure under which the lap is be-
ing wound is momentarily released.
The mandrel on which the new lap
is to be wound is then placed on
the outcoming sheet of cotton and
the pressure again applied while the
new lap is forming. The feed is
not stopped to do this.

At 6.15, 7.20, 2.50 and 4.35 the
cotton came through in compact
masses for a short interval and
caused the power required to in-
crease correspondingly.

The intermediate picker record is
the power history of a 7.5-horse-
power Westinghouse CCL motor,
driving through a belt from the
pulley of a motor on the ceiling to
the pulley on the beater shaft of a
40-inch Kitson intermediate lapper.
It is a one-beater machine, the beater
being a two-bladed one, and there is
but one exhaust fan belting from the
beater shaft, and one cage section
and a lap head for a 40-inch lap.
The automatic stop motion was used
and operated at eight-minute inter-
vals, winding a lap 48 yards long,
weighing 50.6 pounds. The beater
speed was 1,470 revolutions per
minute. The machine was supplied

COTTON-PICKING MACHINERY

127

with an evener, a cone pulley and
sliding-belt device operated by a row
of broad fingers pressing on the
sheet of cotton as it passes into the
beater box and designed to propor-
tion the rate of feed inversely to the
thickness of the sheet being fed, so
as to make constant the quantity of
cotton per unit of time.

The record shows that the motor
and picker were started at 6.09
A. M., and that in eight minutes a
48-yard lap was completed and the
stop motion cut off the feed auto-
matically. The attendant was wait-
ing, however, and removed the lap
at once and immediately started the
feed, so that the machine was run-
ning idle but a few seconds. A lit-
tle after 7 A. M., it will be noticed,
the power curve becomes more er-
ratic, and at 7.15 and 7.25 the feed
was shut off for three or four
minutes instead of as many seconds.
This was because the evener belt was
slipping, causing uneven thickness of
cotton to pass to the beater with a
corresponding reduction in speed.
The heavier the masses the beater
has to break up the more power re-
quired. The longer stops between
laps were necessitated by the time
consumed in trying to adjust matters.
The trouble, however, continued
throughout the day in spite of sev-
eral attempts to fix it, as indicated
by the raggedness of the curve and
by the long stops at 8.45 and 5.15,
and the shorter periods at more fre-
quent intervals.

The curve shows that, owing to a
press of orders, the mill was run
overtime the day of this test, and
a third session of from 7 to 9.15
added to the already long day. By
this record it is possible to count the
number of laps rolled up and the
percent of total working time the
machine was operating. It shows
that seventy-two laps were formed in
the two regular sessions and fifteen
at night, and that the picker was
working 88.4 per cent, of the time
the motor was running.

The power record of the finisher

«X£

128

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

picker is the history of a day's run
of a 5-horse-power Westinghouse
type CCL motor, driving through a
Morse silent chain a Kitson finisher
picker, similar to the intermediate
picker just described in all respects
except the beater. The two-bladed
beater is replaced here by a three-
armed carding beater, which has in
place of blades heavy wooden bases
for rows of spikes, about ^4 inches
long, which pull the cotton apart
rather than beat it as in the earlier
stages. A 48-yard lap, weighing
42.5 pounds, was rolled on this ma-
chine in practically eight minutes.
The action of the stop motion at the
completion of each lap is clearly
shown as in the previous case. At
3.30 the small evener belt began to
stick and give trouble, and this was
not fixed for two laps. Otherwise
the record is quite regular.

In frequent instances the attendant
would not place a lap on the feed
apron as soon as it was needed, and
for a short interval only a three-ply
sheet was going in instead of a four-
ply. The evener would do its ut-
most to correct for this by speeding
up the apron, but even if the amount
of cotton were maintained constant,
the thickness of the sheet was less
and offered less resistance to the
beater blades, so that the power fell
off very noticeably until the cotton
from the new lap again restored nor-
mal conditions. This condition of
affairs is recorded, for example, at
9.35 A. M., and again at 2.47 P. M.
At both these times the interval was
about a minute and a half, and the
finished lap was probably deficient
because of it.

It is interesting to observe how
closely such an instrument records all
the happenings of a day in this way.
In a picker room, where production
is being crowded, a meter record,
taken by the card-room overseer on
any machine in the room, the con-
nection being made without the
knowledge of the hands, will show
him a great deal about where im-
provements can bt made. It keeps

£&

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:^.<s

COTTON-PICKING MACHINERY

129

tabs on the operatives no less than
on the machine.

GENERAL SUMMARY

The development of the induction
motor to its present efficiency, and
at its present low cost, has been the
strongest factor influencing the adop-
tion of individual drive in all lines
of industry. Its spread to the cot-
ton mill is most logical. The ma-
chines are of high rotative speed,
and production is an item of su-
preme importance and is affected ma-
terially by the regularity of these
speeds. Pulsations or variations are
detrimental to the product, but are
ineradicable with an engine and belt
system. It has been well stated by
an engineer who asserts that the
benefits of electric drive increase pro-
portionately as the motor is brought
nearer to direct connection to the
machine. The picker room is the
most advantageous department in
which to make an installation of this
sort, and the development of the
drive has been watched with more
than ordinary interest, keen rivalry

having developed among both the
electric companies and the various
mills, many strong partisans having
voiced their opinions for and against
each method as it has been put in
operation. It is our personal opinion
that the direct drive will ultimately
be most favored, though probably not
in the exact form now used. As new
machines are developed, provision for
a more mechanical attachment will be
made than can be provided when at-
tempting to utilize old parts. Dust-
proof bearings will be used through-
out, or possibly some form of flex-
ible coupling, with two bearings on
the motor, retaining the present
rough iron bearings on the machines.
Improvements in details will con-
tinue to appear until the final evolu-
tion will make the first installation
appear very crude. This develop-
ment has already taken place in the
driving of spinning frames and
twisters, and the direct-connected
motor has replaced all other forms
of motor drive and is held in high
esteem. We predict as successful a
future for it in the picker room.

2-8

ELECTRO-MECHANICAL LOCOMOTIVES

By A. P. Chalkley

In view of the high efficiency and other advantages offered by internal-combustion engines and steam
turbines, various attempts have been made to adapt such motors to railway propulsion, and in the following
article Mr. Chalkley describes some of the recent plans for such machines. At the same time attention
should be called to the fact that recent improvements in the steam locomotive, as indicated by accurate
tests, have resulted in the attainment of much higher efficiencies than were formerly believed practicable.
The tests at St. Louis, and in the testing plant of the Pennsylvania Railroad at Altoona, show that the
use of superheating and compounding enables the steam consumption of passenger locomotives to be
brought down as low as 18.8 pounds per horse-power hour, and of freight locomotives to 20.3 pounds,
and these efficiencies should be taken into account in comparing the possible gain due to the use of the
electro-mechanical locomotive. — The Editor.

IN spite of all that can be said in
its favour, the modern locomo-
tive is a machine of moderate
efficiency ; a fact which has been
clearly recognized by all the greatest
railway engineers, many of whom
have tried to remedy matters by
the adoption of compound engines,
which, however, are, on the whole,
comparative failures.

In the last twenty years the ef-
ficiency of prime movers of every
type has increased tremendously, and
the running cost of any power plant
installed at the present time can in
general be guaranteed not to ex-
ceed two-thirds of that of a simi-
lar equipment fifteen years ago. This
is all the more notable in view of the
fact that it applies to all powers ; the
introduction of the Diesel and suc-
tion gas engines, having rendered it
possible in the case of small and
moderate size units, while steam tur-
bines have completely altered the
aspect as regards heavy engineering.

There are two directions only, in
which this material advance has not
been made, namely, in locomotive and
marine engineering; and though this
assertion must be modified in refer-
ring to the larger boats in which the
high powers required give the steam
turbine an advantage over the older
triple and quadruple expansion en-
gine, slow-speed cargo vessels, of
which the bulk of the world's ship-
ping is composed, are practically no

ISO

more economical if built at the
present time than they were a de-
cade back.

The reasons of this marking time
in these two curiously dissimilar in-
stances are totally distinct, and yet
the most promising remedy is the
same in both. The slow-speed ves-
sel is debarred from taking advan-
tage of the employment of highly
efficient steam turbines, chiefly be-
cause the latter must run at a much
higher speed than is possible with the
present design of propellers, in order
to obtain better results than are
given by ordinary reciprocating en-
gines. The locomotive engine, on
the other hand, suffers from the fact
that it must almost of necessity work
non-condensing, owing to the limits
of space, the presence of oil in the
exhaust steam, and the comparatively
small economy that would be effected
if a condensing plant were installed.

There are many difficulties in the
use of steam turbines, Diesel oil en-
gines, or suction gas engines for
direct driving of locomotives, since
they are all more or less constant
speed, non-reversible engines, and
the most workable alternative seems
to be the employment of electricity,
to act not only as a reversing gear
but also as a means of obtaining an
economical range of speed and the
requisite variation of torque. This
proposition, at first sight almost pro-
hibitively complicated, appears in a

ELECTRO-MECHANICAL LOCOMOTIVES

131

FIG. 1. SECTION OF THE MC NULTA STEAM-ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE

more and more favourable light the
closer it is examined.

In broad terms, the arrangement
of a self-contained electric locomo-
tive is to have one or more electric
generating sets, which deliver power
to motors driving the axles of the
engine, the dynamos being direct-
coupled either to steam turbines,
Diesel or gas engines. All radical
changes as are involved by such a
system must be justified by very
greatly increased economy, or they
are valueless, and the extra compli-
cation will not be tolerated, and be-
fore describing any of the various
systems of electro-mechanical drive,
the assured saving in running costs
must first be analyzed. The more
strictly parallel case of a steam tur-
bine arrangement may be taken first,
this being practically only for
very high-power locomotives and for
trains where as much as 700 horse-
power may be required for lengthy
periods. Ordinary locomotive en-
gines, capable of developing this
power, seldom take less than 30
pounds of steam per indicated horse-
power hour, which is a figure gen-
erally agreed upon as a fair average,
but to present the best case we may
allow 28 pounds per indicated horse-
power hour. Taking the overall me-
chanical efficiency, as 90 per cent.,
which is a high value, the steam con-
sumption per axle horse-power hour

is 31 pounds, and the axle horse-
power of the locomotive is 630. The
amount of steam used per hour is
700 X 28 = 19,600 pounds.

In a steam-turbine arrangement
eight motors of, say, 80 horse-power
each could be employed, and, allow-
ing an electrical transmission ef-
ficiency of 90 per cent., the alterna-
tor would have to be capable of de-
veloping 710 electrical horse-power,
or about 530 kilowatts. The steam
consumption of this machine would
be less than 25 pounds per kilowatt
hour (and considerably less if super-
heat be employed), so that the
amount of steam used per hour will
be not greater than 520 X 25 = 13,-
250 pounds, which shows a saving of
6.350 pounds, or 32.5 per cent., in
favour of the turbo-electric system.
It will be admitted that the above
figures show the reciprocating engine
in its best light, and that even at
lower powers, when the efficiency of
the turbine drops slightly more than
the former, the economy will be more
than realized.

The Diesel engine arrangement
may be examined more in detail, as
it is probable that this system will
be more suitable for the average con-
ditions which obtain on English rail-
ways. Considering a four-hours' run
at 50 miles per hour of a train of
about 250 to 300 tons, requiring an
average drawbar pull over the whole

132

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

distance of 1.5 tons, the axle horse-
power needed is about

i-5 X 50 X 5.280 X 2,240

= 450 H.-P.,

60 X 33.ooo

or allowing an efficiency of 90 per
cent., as before, the engines must de-
velop 500 indicated horse-power. If
the coal and water consumptions be
taken at 3 and 30 pounds per indi-
cated horse-power-hour respectively,
the fuel burnt on a four-hour, non-stop
run would be 6,000 pounds, and the
water used would be 60,000 pounds.
The price of coal to a railway com-
pany is about 12s. per ton, and wa-
ter is about 6c?. per 1,000 gallons,
so that the running cost over the 200
miles would work out at 325. id. for
coal, and 35. for water, or a total of
£1 15^ id.

With the Diesel arrangement there
would be four 1 10-horse-power mo-
tors on four axles, and allowing an
overall efficiency of 80 per cent, the
power required to be generated by
the engine is 550 brake-horse-power
and the total for a four-hours' run

would be 2,200 brake-horse-power
hours. The guaranteed oil consump-
tion of a Diesel engine of this power
is between 0.4 and 0.5 pound per
brake-horse-power-hour, and if we
take the latter figure, the oil con-
sumed on the journey will be 1,100
pounds. The present market price in
London of crude oil is under 45s.
per ton, so that the cost for the run
will be 22s. The saving in the latter
case, therefore, works out at 13s. id.,
or about 37 per cent, of the cost, or
to put it the other way round, the
steam system costs nearly 60 per
cent, more than the Diesel equipment.
No allowance has been made for
cooling water in the latter case, since
this would be used over and over
again, after being passed through a
cooler on the engine, and the only
water lost would be that accidentally
wasted, a negligible item as far as
cost is concerned.

Having demonstrated the saving to
be effected, we may proceed to ex-
amine some of the systems which
will shortly be put into operation.
The first proposal was made nearly

FIG. 2. CIRCUITS OF THE MC NULTA STEAM-ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE

ELECTRO-MECHANICAL LOCOMOTIVES

i33

twenty years ago, the arrangement
consisting of a reciprocating steam
engine coupled to a generator on the
locomotive, the electric power being
transmitted to motors on the axles
of the carriages, but, as may be
imagined, the small economy was
not held to warrant the extra cost
and complication.

In 1905 a system was patented by
Mr. McNulta, which apparently has
never been put into practice, but
which possesses great originality.
Two vertical turbines of the Parsons
type were coupled to the external
armatures of alternators, the internal
field magnets being keyed on to
shafts revolving within the turbine
shafts and coupled to two driving
axles of the locomotive through bevel
gearing. There were also motors on
the other axles, taking their power
from the secondaries of static trans-
formers, the primaries of which were
connected to the terminals of the
alternator armatures. The field
magnets of the alternator were ex-
cited from a separate steam-driven
exciter. On starting up the turbines,
the outer armatures were rotated,
and when the field magnets were
excited current was generated in the
armatures and delivered to the mo-
tors through the transformers. The
field magnets also revolved, and, as
the speed of the locomotive in-
creased, the relative speed of rotation
of the magnets and the armatures
decreased, and the voltage at the
armature terminals (and consequent-
ly the torque of the motors) dimin-
ished, that is to say, the highest
torque was developed at the start and
was reduced as the speed rose. Vari-
ations of torque, according to the
conditions, were obtained by a con-
troller, which altered the ratio of
transformation. A sectional eleva-
tion of the arrangement is shown in
Fig. 1, and a diagrammatic illustra-
tion of the circuits in Fig. 2.

Probably the first electro-mechani-
cal locomotive to be built is now be-
ing constructed at the works of the
North British Locomotive Company

at Glasgow, in accordance with the
designs of Messrs. Reid and Ramsay,
and tests will shortly be carried out.
A single horizontal turbine of the
Curtis type is employed to drive a
direct-current series dynamo, from
which power is taken to four or
more series wound motors coupled
to the driving axles through gearing
in oil boxes. The steam, after pass-
ing through the turbine, enters a
jet or ejector condenser, where it is
condensed and mixes with the con-
densing water. The whole is then
pumped by means of turbine or reci-
procating pumps through the cooling
apparatus mounted on the front of
the engine, so as to obtain the full
blast of the air when the train is in
motion. Cooling may also be facili-
tated by a turbine-driven fan, forc-
ing the air over the water, the same
or another fan being used to cause
a draught in the boiler furnace. The
water, after being cooled, drops by
gravity into a supply tank, and part
is pumped back into the boiler
through a feed heater, and part used
for condensing purposes again, the
supply tank being of sufficient capacity
to carry the water required for the
boiler and to make up any losses in
the condensing water.

Figs. 3 and 4 show the general ar-
rangement; Figs. 3a and 4a being
the front end, and Figs. 3b and 4b
the back end of the locomotive. F
is the boiler, E the turbine, C the
generator, and B the motors. The
jet condenser is shown at H, K be-
ing the supply tank, N the cooler,
and / the condenser pumps, which in
this case are reciprocating. The feed
pumps are at P, R is the turbine-
driven fan, and S the feed heater.

A further and most promising
system which will soon be put into
operation is that of Mr. Durtnall.
It is applicable with steam turbines,
suction gas engines, or Diesel oil en-
gines, though the latter seem likely
to give the best results. The electri-
cal part of the equipment is shown in
Fig. 5, as arranged for a six-cyl-
inder, two-stroke Diesel engine as

134

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

ELECTRO-MECHANICAL LOCOMOTIVES

*35

136

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

-V

FIG. 5. THE DUBTNALL SYSTEM FOR ELECTRIC TRACTION WITH DIESEL ENGINES

prime mover. The generator con-
sists of two elements, the alternator,
with armature B and field magnets
B, and the transformer generator,
with primary H and secondary I,
and the squirrel cage induction mo-
tors are shown on the axles at K,
L representing the stators. Both the
rotating elements of the generator
are on the same shaft, A, which is
roupled to the prime mover ; 1, 2 and 2'
are switches, and E is an exciter which
delivers its current to the field B,
through the slip rings. The design
of the machines depends on the con-
ditions of running and the speed re-
quired. If the prime mover is a

Diesel engine working at, say, 400
revolutions per minute, the alterna-
tor may be a 4-pole, the transformer
a 12-pole, and the motors 20-pole
machines. To obtain the lowest
speed of the motors, the current is
taken direct from the armature of
the alternator to them, when a syn-
chronous speed of 400 X 4 -4- 20 =
80 revolutions per minute is pro-
duced. For the next speed the cur-
rent from T, instead of passing
direct to the motors, is led to the
primary of the transformer genera-
tor, so that the flux due to it revolves
in a direction contrary to that pro-
duced by the rotation of the primary

ELECTRO-MECHANICAL LOCOMOTIVES

J37

FIG. 5A. MECHANICAL SPEED CONTROL

itself. The periodicity of the cur-
rent taken from the secondary of the
transformer generator is, therefore,
equivalent to that of an alternator
with 12 minus 4, i. e., 8 poles, so
that the synchronous speed of the
motors is 400 X 8 -=- 20, i. e., 160
revolutions per minute. The third

and top speed is reached by sending
the current from T into the trans-
former generator, so that the direc-
tion of rotation of the flux due to it
is the same as that of the primary of
the transformer generator. The syn-
chronous speed of the motors is now
the same as if the power were ob-
tained from a 12 plus 4, i. e., a 16-pole
generator, and will be 400 X 16 -l- 20
= 320 revolutions per minute. Inter-
mediate synchronous speeds can be
obtained by mounting the armature
T on bearings, and providing it with
a pair of slip rings, as shown in the
figure, and varying the speed me-
chanically to any required extent.
Reversing is accomplished by simply
reversing two phases by means of a
change over switch. The figures
given above are, of course, purely
illustrative, and it would probably be
found in most cases that higher
speed motors would be more satis-
factory and economical, gearing be-
ing employed to reduce the speed of
the axles to the workable limit.

ENGINEERING WORKS IN CONCRETE

By Day Allen Willey

One of the important results of the exhaustion of certain materials of construction appears in the sub-
stitution of later substances and combinations for those that have become too costly or unsuitable for
general use. Thus, for many purposes, large timbers have been found unavailable because of the
expense attending their employment, and the rolled steel girder appears to take their place. In like
manner the improvements that have enabled Portland cement to be produced in quantity, at moderate
cost, has led to the development of concrete as a substitute both for timber and for cut stone, while the
use of steel reinforcement in concrete construction gives to the combination a resistance to tensile as well
as crushing stresses which gives it far wider uses than were practicable for either element when used
separately.

In the present article Mr. Willey reviews the growing use of concrete, and shows the extent to
which it is enabling works otherwise impracticable to be made both possible and remunerative, and calls
attention to the lines along which engineers, manufacturers, and financiers must look for further
successful developments. — The Editor.

THE adage that there's nothing
new tinder the sun may be
considered as imaginary from
the standpoint of the engineer, when
we remember the great revolution
that has taken place in various in-
dustries, due to the perfection of
skill, associated with the ingenuity,
the originality, that is characteristic
of the engineer of to-day. It is
needless to refer to the evolution in
connection with transportation, in-
dustrial power, the application of
electricity, the simplification of me-
chanism in general by increasing
the power with a reduced weight of
metal. In some respects this evolu-
tion has been wonderful, as the lay-
men would put it.

But there is nothing more worthy
of study than concrete. The world
says it is new. That is true as to
its general use, but it is really an
illustration of the adage that intro-
duces this article. When the archae-
ologists began uncovering the ruins
of the Old World, they found mas-
sive walls of brick and stone, tiling
of peculiar construction, but they
also found remains of great aque-
ducts and viaducts of composed ele-
ments, assembled by human efforts,
so compactly assimilated that where
the excavating tool might crack or
fracture the stone, this composition
resisted the heaviest blow not merely
because it was hard but of actually

more tenacity. We are still ignorant
of the extent to which concrete was
formed by the engineers and archi-
tects probably before the Christian
era in various structures. That the
great reservoirs that brought water
to irrigate Babylonia included con-
crete is a fact now established be-
yond contradiction. Only the wars,
which ruined them, have prevented
their employment to this day in turn-
ing the desert into fertility. Traces
of the concrete building of the an-
cients are continually being found in
Europe, and how far their efforts
extended remains to be discovered.

It is strange, considering the his-
tory of this material, that its im-
portance and value should have been
neglected until recent years, especi-
ally the truly great variety of pur-
poses for which it cannot only be
used but for which it is an actual
necessity — creations in which it can
be utilized entirely or with other ma-
terial.

Dwelling briefly on staple material
for building construction, in the gen-
eral sense of the term, we include
stone of all kinds, except shale and
other friable formations impractica-
ble for the builder's vise. Certain
clays are moulded into brick. These
elements may be replaced by wood
where forests are available, and it is
needless to say that stone, brick and
wood are combined in formation in

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

139

m m

: L ** i

r ill!"*!**

A CONCRETE HOTEL UNDER CONSTRUCTION AT ATLANTIC CITY. TRUSSED CONCRETE STEEL COMPANY, DETROIT

an enormous variety of ways. Iron
and steel must be, of course, ■ added
to the group of formative elements,
since they constitute parts, especially
in the erection of large building
structures as well as railways,
bridges, marine work ordnance and
miscellaneous mechanism. At this
point in the discussion the question

arises as to the availability of an
element. The world contains great
beds of building stone. The United
States, especially, has been benefited
in the abundance and variety of this
material. It has been said that the
great architectural piles of Europe
exist in such numbers because the lo-
calities contained sufficient stones

140

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

A PORTAELE CONCRETE MILL USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OK AN IRRIGATION CANAL

often in the vicinity of the site. As
to wood, Europe's preserves to-day
are far below the percentage of de-
mand, and lumber must be imported.
Clays for brick are also limited, al-
though when the engineers excavated
the ruins of the Campanile they
found that its foundation rested
partly on a buttress made of a brick
that had withstood the enormous
pressure of the tower over a 1,000
years without decomposing, and con-
stantly saturated by the chemicals of
sea water. But clay, like wood, is a
rare material for the foreign builder,
and the stone quarries are being rap-
idly depleted while the European fur-
nace and mill are yearly producing a
greater and greater output of archi-
tectural material in steel ; thus the
artificial is superseding the natural.

And thus is explained, in part, why
the importance of concrete has been
appreciated in Europe far more than
in the United States, and, strange as
it may seem, in more ways. Visit

the English seaports and you will
see harbours literally framed with
concrete reinforced by steel. The
rock fill or masonry crib or quay is
falling into disuse. Even the piles
and other supports of the quays,
breakwaters, perhaps the wharf ter-
minals, are of concrete, moulded to
the exact dimensions. Coast cities
have actually been made seaports by
artificial basins protected from the
ocean by walls of concrete reinforced
by steel, but without a cubic yard of
ordinary masonry. The same is true
with the recent harbour facilities
completed by the North Sea coun-
tries, but the reason is simple. The
supply of sand, the base of this arti-
ficial stone, is limitless. Cement in
abundance is manufactured in Britain
and on the Continent ; water, the last
ingredient, is to be had merely for
the pumping. So the age of con-
crete has succeeded the "stone age"
in the enlargement of Europe's facil-
ities for marine commerce, an expan-

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

141

sion that amazes the expert in har-
bour improvement when he sees
these great works for the first time.

Such is but an instance of the de-
velopment in the use of concrete in
the Old World. The sewers are be-
ing lined with it, also subways in
cities. Concrete is replacing natural
stone railway viaducts. In the form
of pillars and posts it is indispensa-
ble for supporting buildings. Even
concrete barges have been built in
Italy, craft of such economical and
durable construction that other Eu-
ropean countries are considering the
substitution of concrete for wood
and steel for the vessels plying on
their inland waterways.

The first thing that is noted in the
study of this subject in the United
States is the unlimited supply of
sands and aggregate vhich are suit-
able for this composition. The sand
occurs, as shown by a geological
study, in many parts of the country
where wood, stone and brick for
making clay are not abundant. No

country has such advantages for
making concrete of various kinds as
the United States. West of the Mis-
sissippi river so many States, desti-
tute of timber growth and natural
stone, have such beds of the base for
concrete that the supply is ample to
use this material in any form which
has as yet been conceived by the en-
gineers. To summarize the condi-
tions, it may be said, without exag-
geration, that no country in the
world has a greater opportunity to
utilize this compound in its various
forms than the United States, and
that nowhere can it be manufactured
at such a low cost.

Analysis of the purposes for which
concrete is not only available but in
many cases is absolutely necessary,
proves that Americans have neglected
a great opportunity in not utilizing it
on an extensive scale in the past. If
a comparison was made of the cost
of bridges of all types, canals, tun-
nels, and the many varieties of build-
ing's in which concrete could be sub-

AN IRRIGATION CONDUIT OF REINFORCED CONCRETE UNDER CONSTRUCTION

142

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

CONCRETE DIVERSION CANAL ON THE TRUCKEE IRRIGATION SCHEME, NEVADA

stituted for brick and wood, the fig-
ures would show that the expense of
concrete as a substitute would have
greatly reduced the outlay. In many
instances it would have been more
durable and advantageous, and the
expense and time of construction
saved to a great extent. It is only
necessary to call attention to the sim-
ple process of moulding the material
into various forms, as an illustration
of this fact, also the small amount
of human labor required to do a
certain work with concrete as con-
trasted with the use of other
material for the same purposes. An-
other feature of economy is the
expense of power machinery for
transferring and conveying, such as
derricks, tramways, and other appar-
atus for lifting heavy weights in the
construction of low buildings.

It would be impossible to enum-
erate all of the purposes for which
concrete can be utilized. What has
been done in Europe is one indica-

tion, but in America the variety of
work which can be done with it is
far greater. It has been said that we
have reached the age of concrete, but
at present we are only beginning in
the use of this material, and no one
can tell to what extent it will be used
ten years hence. Already, in build-
ing construction, it has been largely
depended upon in the erection of fac-
tories of various kinds. In New
York City stands an office building
well termed "monolith," since it is
merely a great mould of this ma-
terial. The use of concrete in sup-
ports of various kinds, either with
or without steel reinforcement, is
shown in the many types of pillars,
piles in submarine work, concrete
foundations for dwellings, as well as
stores, while the skeleton of the of-
fice building is now being constructed
of concrete and steel, instead of the
metal skeleton which came with the
era of the tall building. The use of
concrete for storing- heavy material is

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

143

CONCRETE WEIR AND GATES, SHOWING SIZE AND REINFORCEMENT

instanced in the construction of grain
elevators at different points along the
Great Lakes, since the material has
such a lateral pressure resistance.
Warehouses which must sustain great

weight are also

being

constructed

not merely with concrete walls, but
concrete framework, and the floors
themselves may be of the same ma-
terial.

Projects that show economy in the
use of concrete are the building of
bridges. Structures which have been
finished in this country for a series
of years verify the statements of
many engineers that the material,
while much cheaper to use than
stone, may be regarded in many in-
stances just as durable, and, in some
instances, more durable, for the rea-

144

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

son that in certain climatic condi-
tions the masonry is far more af-
fected than concrete, owing to the
compactness of the latter material.
As to standing the stress and strain
of train service, there is no doubt but
what it is equal to masonry in most
instances and will remain in service
longer periods without repairs than
steel work. The faith of the en-
gineers in concrete has been shown
especially in the West, where the
formation of concrete bridges is
shown in practically every feature of
railroad work. Possibly, a better
test of the material is in the aque-
duct. Here it must sustain a con-
tinual water pressure far greater in
many instances than the weight of
the passenger train. As stated, this
pressure is constant. It is unneces-
sary to detail some of the concrete
aqueducts which are now being used
in connection with irrigation in the
West, or the structures which have
been built over large rivers, even the
piers reaching the river bottoms be-
ing of the same material. The high-
way bridge is still being built of steel
and wood as well as stone, in places
where the elements for making con-
crete are so abundant and diversified
that the sand and gravel may be
gathered from the bottom of the
creek or river and mixed with ce-
ment on the site. Thus the neces-
sity of carrying steel or wooden
bridge work perhaps a ioo miles by
rail and putting it in a position with
machinery is entirely avoided, the
concrete workers making the forms
or moulds of timber on the spot, the
only false work needed being a tem-
porary dam and scaffolding. In
some cases a bridge may be built
over a small stream, without even the
expense of constructing a coffer dam.
In the building of elevated structures
for conveyance of every kind there
is no question but what there is a
great future for concrete, owing to
the advantages which have been out-
lined.

Within the last few years the ne-
cessity of concrete for underground

and submarine projects has been
demonstrated beyond question. It is
believed by experts of national repu-
tation that the achievement, for such
it was, of tunneling the Hudson river
would not have been successful with-
out the use of this material, as no
construction of stone, brick or metal
would have served the purpose, ow-
ing to the formation of the bottom
of the river and other conditions.
The same is true of the East river
tunnels connecting New York and
Brooklyn, but in other parts of the
United States we also find works of
interest which are interesting illus-
trations of what the engineer has
done with this material, as, for ex-
ample, the tunnel which brings wa-
ter into the city of Chicago for do-
mestic purposes from Lake Michigan.
This conduit of steel and concrete
rests upon a soft sand bottom, and
is carried out to such a point in the
lake that a continual supply of clear
water is insured. In the West an-
other project of interest is the con-
nection' of Canada and the United
States by the tunnel under the De-
troit river, in which concrete was ab-
solutely necessary.

In connection with the irrigation
of arid lands it has been necessary
for the engineers of the U. S. Re-
clamation Service to go through hills
and mountains, in order to carry the
water for distribution to the irri-
gated lands. One instance of this
sort is the longest underground canal
for carrying water in the United
States, extending a distance of no
less than six miles, being served by
the Gunnison river, a mountain
stream in western Colorado. Only
by this underground conduit could
the water of the river be diverted,
and it is now serving no less than
200,000 acres of land in the Uncom-
pahgre valley, which has been a por
tion of the American desert. ThL
fact is worth noting, for the reason
that it is one of the most notable
engineering feats in the history of
the United States, and without the
use of concrete for lining the in-

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

145

terior of the canal as well as the
distributing channels the work would
have been impossible.

Among the unique ways in which
concrete is now being employed is in
connection with mining operations.
The quality and durability of the
material give it advantages over
wood in the shoring of galleries and

reach it with a shaft with concrete
walls, to be reinforced with steel.
To cut into the rock, a device
termed a steel-cutting shoe was
made.

The shoe was placed at the bot-
tom of an excavation 15 feet deep,
the resting place of the shoe being
accurately leveled. Forms were then

CONCRETE WOEK ON POWER DROP ON MAIN CANAL OF THE TRUCKEE-CARSON PROJECT, NEVADA

other openings, while in formation,
where there is danger of cave-ins,
the concrete lining is being used
very extensively. A new use, how-
ever, for it has been demonstrated
by a shaft planned to reach a de-
posit of coal in Pennsylvania in a
formation so water-soaked that no
ordinary excavation could be success-
ful and a shaft lined with iron or
steel could not completed. The coal
bed was covered with a bed of rock
extending 80 feet below the surface.
Under this for a depth of no less
than 700 feet the formation is soaked
with drainage. As the coal bed is
a very large one and of a high grade,
it was determined, if possible, to

erected on the shelf and concrete
poured in in the manner followed
in the filling of any concrete wall.
Steel reinforcing rods were placed
at regular intervals in both direc-
tions. The shoe was thus forced
through the soft earth by the weight
of the wall; and, as the shaft sank,
the wall was built up, the forms be-
ing removed as soon as the concrete
set and replaced above to be refilled.
The shaft kept sinking of its weight
as its height increased, the walls al-
ways, being kept a little above the
ground level. The greatest problem
encountered was in keeping the shoe
absolutely level, so that one side of
the shaft would not sink faster than

146

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

CHAPEL OF THE UNITED STATES NAVAL ACADEMY, ANNAPOLIS

the other. The rock bed was reached
about 80 feet below the ground, and
as this stratum was not level, the
walls of the shaft had to be propped
on one side, and a concrete joint
formed between the bottom and the
bed of rock. This joint was made
absolutely waterproof. Then the en-
gineers began blasting through the
rock and a concrete lining was placed
in the rock portion of the shaft,
making it of uniform diameter and
giving it a smooth operating interior
surface. In carrying out this novel
mining work more than 3,000 cubic
yards of concrete were utilized, in
addition to the steel the quantity of
metal required being about 145 tons.
The upper section of the shaft might
be called a huge caisson, since so

much of it sets in a water-soaked
formation.

The description of this shaft is no-
table, since, as already stated, it
shows how mineral deposits can be
reached and mined by the use of
concrete in lining the openings,
where the natural formation would
permit of no other successful method.

But the necessity of concrete from
the building standpoint has caused it
to be utilized in place of other ma-
terial in some very unique ways. The
chapel of the United States Naval
Academy at Annapolis is one of the
most remarkable illustrations. While
the exterior of the building is of
pressed brick, with a natural stone
foundation, the framework is entirely
of reinforced concrete, the only way

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

147

.in which the plan of the architect
eliminating all pillars and columns in
the interior, could be executed. The
chapel is one of the most picturesque
structures of the Naval Academy
and imposing in its proportions, but
without the concrete arches support-
ing the roof it could not have been
designed of its present majestic pro-
portions. In fact, the chapel is con-
sidered by architects and engineers a
most interesting example of modern
architecture yet attempted in this
country, really rivaling the famous
Pantheon of Rome in its height and
size, as its dome reaches to a height
of 210 feet, 70 feet higher than the
Roman structure. It may be said
here that the Pantheon dome has a
framework of "beton," the ancient
concrete, and has thus been sup-
ported since the year 123 A. D., or
nearly 1,800 years. The manner in
which the concrete was placed in po-
sition in the naval chapel is what
makes it so unusual. When Camille
Siquot, the French engineer, came to
Annapolis to supervise the building
of the chapel he was laughed at by
many who heard of the manner in
which he intended to erect the con-
crete building. He proceeded with
his work and the completed building
is a guarantee that he knew whereof
he spoke. The building is practically
the shape of a Grecian cross, the
central portion of which has been
rounded. The floor space of this is
83 feet in diameter, which, with the
transepts, gives a floor space 116 feet
square. Each of the transepts is
built in the form of an arch, they
being four in number. As each of
these arches has but four legs about
two feet each in diameter, it will be
seen that the enormous series of
domes which continue upward 210
feet stand upon rather slender sup-
port.

The pillars, or legs, were built in
much the same manner as any other
concrete structure. When the arches
were started, however, instead of se-
curing the wooden frames, which are
generally held in position by scaffold-

ing, to hold the great weight of con-
crete which is placed in position to
form the arch, no artificial aids were
employed. The wooden boxes, or
molds, were added in short sections,
the longest of which was less than
two feet. As the work progressed,
and the arch took shape, it appeared
as if it must break and fall by sheer
weight. Work progressed from both
sides till the two points met at what,
in masonry, would be the keystone,
and were then joined together by the
simple addition of more concrete.
The weight must have been some-
thing enormous, but in spite of this
fact they retained their position
through each successive stage of the
work, and, of course, when com-
pleted, the danger of collapse was
passed. It was in the construction of
the dome and the walls which sup-
port it that Siquot displayed the
greatest skill. It seemed more a
work of creation than construction,
and stands to-day as an example of
what is daily being accomplished
along new lines. In this the tensile
strength of concrete is given a test
more severe than any other to which
it has been subjected. Although the
dome is a complete arch from every
point, it has no support outside of
the concrete of which it is made and
small iron rods less than half an
inch in thickness.

The dome gradually grew in height
until it finally bent far in from every
point and became perfect in outline
and figure. Except for the hanging
scaffold the men were standing on
a concrete wall almost level and held
from a drop of over 200 feet by the
mere shell of five inches. All this
had been accomplished without the
aid of a particle of support from the
underside and by nothing more than
the arched shape of the material.

This is admitted to be the most
notable illustration of a concrete-
framed building in the world, but
the material has also been utilized
because nothing else was suitable on
a site which consisted merely of a
sea beach. A hotel of 10 stories was

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

CONSTRUCTION OF THE CHAPEL AT THE UNITED STATES NAVAL ACADEMY, ANNAPOLIS

designed on the sea front of Atlantic
City. The foundation consisted
merely of sand, into which the tide
forced its way at a depth of 10 feet
below the surface. Such was the
site on which the engineers prepared
to erect the hotel. They secured
foundations by sinking caissons, in
which concrete piers were moulded.

Then was erected, story by story, a
framework, not of steel but of con-
crete, reinforced with steel rods. The
junction of the vertical and lateral
parts of the framework was enclosed
by steel clamps, into which the
columns and girders were set and
held by bolts. Floor by floor this
framework was erected, to be sur-

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

149

RAISING MESS HALL FRONT AFTER CONSTRUCTION IN HORIZONTAL POSITION

mounted by a massive dome of the
same material work. The floors and
partitions were also of tiling and
concrete, making the structure fire-
proof. By utilizing this material in
place of brick, stone or wood, really
a beautiful building was erected on a
site where the foundation must needs
be entirely artificial.

Another illustration as to the con-
struction of a concrete-walled build-
ing, and the quickness with which it
can be completed, goes to show the
value of this material in time and
labour-saving over brick, stone and
wood. A series of buildings was
erected in Ohio for the State troops,
including a barracks. These in-
cluded a mess hall, utilized for cook-
ing and for serving meals to the
soldiers. It is quite large in propor-
tions, being two stories high, the
exact height being 26 feet. When
the State engineers prepared plans
for the camp, the question of using
concrete for the principal material
was discussed, resulting in a decision
favorable to it, but the concrete was
utilized so extensively that it may
be said the mess hall is almost en-

tirely a concrete creation, much of
the interior work being composed of
it as well as the entire exterior.
When the plans of erection were dis-
cussed, the engineer, R. H. Aiken,
advocated the moulding of the walls
upon the ground and lifting them
bodily to their permanent positions,
thus avoiding the use of scaffolding,
also the lifting of material if the
construction was vertical, as in the
usual manner. It was finally decided
to follow this plan and special equip-
ment was devised for the purpose.

The principal feature in the equip-
ment was a series of specially con-
structed jacks for raising the com-
pleted walls. In starting the build-
ing a plaform of 2-inch lumber was
laid across steel beams, about 4 feet
apart, these beams supported by jacks.
The platform was not more than 3
feet from the ground, and lay in-
side the borders of the proposed
building. Four-inch boards were set
up on the four sides to complete the
form. On the platform were placed
the window frames and the rein-
forced concrete cornice, which was
cast in 6-foot sections, 3 feet wide.

iS°

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

A CONCRETE WALL PARTIALLY RAISED

In this case special ornamental win-
dow caps were required, and these
were cast separately and placed in
their proper positions on the plat-
form. Then concrete of one part ce-
ment, one and a half to two parts
sand, and four parts crushed stone
was poured on to the platform in
very wet form.

So rapidly did the concrete solidify
that an examination only 48 hours
after it was placed in the moulds
showed that it had hardened suf-
ficiently to set the wall in its verti-
cal position. In spite of its weight,
the only mechanical power needed
was that secured from a small porta-
ble engine developing but five horse-
power. The engine was hauled to a
platform which supported a series of
jack screws. A steel shaft extended
to all of the jack screws, a belt pul-
ley for revolving the shaft being
mounted upon its end. The engine
was connected with the shaft by
means of the pulley and belting, and
slowly the wall was tilted into posi-
tion. The platform supports were
so accurately placed that the foot of
the wall swung to its position on the
foundation at precisely the right line,
and, when four hours later, the slow-
moving screws had raised the wall
to a vertical position, every line was
plumb. This operation was repeated

until all the walls were up. The re-
inforcing rods were allowed to pro-
trude at the edges of the walls and
interlock at the corners of the struc-
ture. The rods are twisted together,
and an 8-inch board, the only false
work used in the construction of all
the walls, is placed inside the corner,
concrete is poured in, a neat joint
made on the outside corner, and the
two walls are thus bound firmly to-
gether. As already stated, the mess
hall is 26 feet high, with an average
thickness of 4 inches, while the
pilasters are 10 inches and the sills 6
inches. Consequently the wall rep-
resented a very heavy weight, but so
accurately was it elevated that when
in position it did not deviate a frac-
tion of an inch out of a straight line
and rested squarely upon its foun-
dation. As far as known, this is
the first successful attempt to mould
a concrete building in sections, then
to merely lift the sections into their
permanent positions ; but it will be
recognized that the idea is practical
in many other forms of concrete con-
struction and is really a revolution
in the construction of warehouses,
dwellings, and other work where this
material may be used.

In an analysis of various ways in
which concrete is of importance is
the extent to which it has aided in

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

151

what is known as irrigation. In fact,
the work of storing water and dis-
tributing it upon the desert and arid
lands of this country could be done
only in a few localities, and irriga-
tion greatly limited if we did not
have this material available. When
it is stated that concrete has been em-
ployed in every important irrigation
project thus far undertaken in the
United States, a better idea of what
it means to the people in general may
be gained. The most noted authority
on irrigation, Hon. Francis G. New-
lands, has made a life study of this
work, and, according to his esti-
mate, fully 500,000,000 acres of land
will be added to the American farms
under the present law, which, it might
be added, was framed by Mr. New-
lands, who may be considered both
an agricultural and irrigational ex-
pert. This means fully 1,000,000
homesteads ior a population of at
least 5,000,000 people, but the re-
clamation of the lands now desolate
and productive of no crop whatever,
the reservoirs built and being built

to store the water of the lake and
river for irrigation, the canals carry-
ing the water to the irrigated dis-
tricts and many of the laterals and
ditches served by these canals are
dependent upon concrete, as this is
the only available material that can
be used to prevent seepage and waste
of water, and to carry it to the cul-
tivated fields. Not even an estimate
can be given of the enormous quan-
tity of concrete that is employed in
this way alone. Even in places where
a natural gorge forms a location for
a reservoir and the dam constructed
of masonry, one finds much concrete
work necessary, possibly for facing
the water side of the dam, for ce-
menting its ends to the natural for-
mation, and for other purposes.

The water from the storage basins
could not be distributed without con-
crete, since much of the surface of
the country is so friable that it would
act as a sponge in absorbing the
liquid long before it reached the area
to be irrigated. Consequently, some
of the single-canal systems in the

RAISING A CONCRETE WALL

!52

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

West are from 200 to 300 miles in
length, carrying a depth of water
from 3 to 8 feet, yet every square
foot of the bottom and sides is lined
with this material. As to its actual
necessity, reference may be made
to the Klamath water-works system,
conveying water from reservoirs in
southeast Washington to what has
been a portion of the American
desert, in what is known as the
Klamath Valley. For 20 miles the
water passes through a concrete
aqueduct held against the hill side by
arms of reinforced concrete anchored
into the rock. Owing to the forma-
tion of this river it was impossible
to construct a canal in any other
manner, but tests were made that
showed that the concrete had the ne-
cessary strength and resistance to
pressure. This canal is composed of
sections of the material moulded to
the proper form, in the valley, 300
feet below the canal river, then ele-
vated to the line of the canal, and
the sections set together. In spite of
this method of work there has been
no crack or break in the conduit
since it was placed in service.

Remembering that the storing of
the water and the spreading of it over
the land by the government recla-
mation service is a scheme that af-
fects no less than thirteen States of the
West in addition to nearly all of the
territories, an idea of the great im-
portance of the projects may be
gained since works are being con-
structed all the way from the Rio
Grande river, forming a boundary
between the United States and
Mexico, into far away Washington.
In some places the water is being
stored in the gorges. In other spots
it is necessary to form reservoirs in
valleys of a formation through which
the water would percolate, as in the
case of the Carson Sink in Nevada.

In other places rivers are being
dammed where no masonry or other
work of this kind can be utilized on
account of the soft formation. Yet
in every instance, without one excep-
tion, concrete has been necessary in
many instances in place of stone or
other material on account of its dura-
bility. Possibly, the most notable in-
stance of its utility is in connection
with the greatest irrigation project —
The Roosevelt Dam in Arizona.

While the dam itself is being
constructed of masonry, the blocks
of stone are joined by a form
of concrete made on the site of
the present reservoir, in one of
the largest works in the country,
erected entirely for this purpose,
and which will be abandoned
when the project is completed. To
operate the cement mill, to lift the
blocks of stone into place, and to do
other lifting and conveying a canal
has been constructed which generates
4,000 electrical horse-power. All of
this canal, which is 20 miles long and
includes several tunnels through the
mountains is concrete-lined.

So much has been heard about the
expenditure by the government of
money for irrigation purposes that
private enterprise may have been
overlooked. While about $50,000,000
have already been expended by the
government, nearly as much is the
amount of capital that has gone into
irrigation schemes outside of the
government work. Over 15,000,000
acres of waste land have already
been converted into farms, reaching
all the way from California north-
ward to the State of Oregon, also
on the west side of the Rocky
Mountains. Here, again, however,
concrete has been absolutely neces-
sary in order to complete the various
systems of storage and distribution
controlled by the private enterprise.

SYNCHRONIZING ALTERNATORS

By S. G. Winn

THE synchronizing of alternators
may be defined as the process
of paralleling their armatures
at the instant when their momentary
pressures are equal in magnitude and
sign and are increasing or decreasing
at equal rates ; in other words, when
the voltages of the machines are
equal and in the same phase.

Equality of voltage is easily deter-
mined, comparison of the voltmeters
being all that is required. To equal-
ize the phases, however, calls for
special devices, such as synchro-
nizers, the successful operation of
which requires a certain amount of
practical experience.

For the purpose of this article it
will not be necessary to go into an
elaborate description of the various
synchronizers on the market (for
they all more or less work on the
same principle).

In Fig. I, which shows the dia-
grammatic connection of an ordinary
synchronizer, the generators are
shown at Generator I and Generator
2. Generator I is on load, connected
to the bus bars BB permanently on
the earthed side and through a switch
on the other side. Generator 2 is
supposed to be running up to speed
with its main switch open, except that
it touches the synchronizing contact
C.G.

The synchronizer consists of a
small transformer S.P. wound with
two separate and equal primaries,
P1 P2 and one secondary S. P1 is
connected permanently on both sides
to the bus bars. P2 is connected to
machine No. 2 by way of S.G. per-
manently on one side (the earthed
side) and temporarily on the other
side. The secondary circuit is closed,

either with a lamp, a voltmeter, or
both.

Now, suppose that Generator 2,
although up to normal speed and
pressure, is in opposite phase to Gen-
erator 1. The instantaneous mag-
neto-motive forces in the two pri-
mary windings at any' moment being
equal and opposite, no magnetic flux
will be produced to interlink with
the secondary winding, and thus no
electrical motor force will be gen-
erated in the secondary.

The lamp will, therefore, not glow,
and the voltmeter needle will remain
at zero. On the other hand, if the
machines are in phase, the instan-
taneous magneto-motive forces in the
two primary windings at any moment
will be equal and in the same direc-
tion, and thus a strong magnetic flux
will interlink with the secondary,
causing the lamps to glow and the
voltmeter needle to give a reading.

The approach to synchronous run-
ning is indicated by the flickering of
the lamp or the oscillations of the
voltmeter needle ; the slower these
become the nearer the machines are
to synchronism. When the machines
are very nearly synchronized some
seconds may elapse between the suc-
cessive swings of the needle from
zero to a maximum. The reason can
best be seen by a reference to Fig. 2.
The speeds, and therefore the pe-
riodicities, are nearby but not quite
equal. We may suppose that Gen-
erator 2 is running a little more slowly
than Generator 1, so that the phases
of the latter are slowly overtaking
those of the former machine, the
two coming into coincidence, say,
every eight seconds. In Fig. 2 the
continuous curve represents the volt-

153

i54

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

ZBt/sJBorJ on/y acre/ OP Connected.

FIG. 1.- — DIAGRAMMATIC CONNECTION OF ORDINARY SYNCHRONIZER

age of Generator 2, and the dotted
curves represent the voltage of Gen-
erator 2 and the dotted curves those
of Generator 1.

In diagram A the two phases are
shown in direct opposition. Diagram
B represents the state of affairs 1
second later; Generator I is now
only 135 electrical degrees behind
Generator 2.

During the next second the lag is
reduced to 90 degrees, and then to
45 degrees. At the end of the fourth
second the machines are in phase ;
and this is what happens when the
deflection of the synchronizing volt-
meter rises from zero to a maximum
in four seconds.

The curves in Fig. 2 represent the
pressures in the alternator armatures,
but they may equally well stand for
the magnetic-motive forces in the
synchronizing transformer. It will be
noticed that the two alternators are
shown to be of equal frequencies.
This cannot be the case, for the rela-
tive charge between the two phases
is entirely the result of their differ-
ence in frequency. However, in such

a case as this, where four seconds
must elapse between zero and maxi-
mum potential on the voltmeter, the
difference in frequency is so small as
to be negligible on such a small
sketch. It must, however, be remem-
bered that there is a difference in
frequency.

The magneto-motive forces in a
s)onchronizing transformer, when the
two primaries are fed with currents
at widely different potentials and fre-
quencies, may be represented by most
interesting curves ; indeed, this is the
best way of understanding the ac-
tions that go on under such condi-
tions. The curve of the bus bar volt-
age should be plotted, and on it
should be superimposed another of
different periodicity and pressure to
represent the incoming machine ;
from this may be deduced a third or
resultant curve that will explain the
action of the voltmeter under any
theoretical consideration.

In practice the speedy and satisfac-
tory synchronizing of alternators de-
pends to a very great extent on the
skill of the man at the engine ; he

SYNCHRONIZING ALTERNATORS

i5S

JCCONBARr VOLTS lA/IT/ALLr

seCOHD/UiY VOLTS AFTER . J jfc •
FIG. 2. PRESSURES IN ALTERNATOR ARMATURES

should thoroughly understand his en-
gine and know pretty clearly what
will be the effect of any small varia-
tion on the stop valve.

The incoming machine is started
and gradually increased in speed, the
pilot lamp being watched the whole
time. At first this will give a dull
red light, the flicker taking place at
such a rapid pace as to be quite un-
discernible to the naked eye. -As the
speed increases the flicker becomes
more evident, until when the speed
is practically correct some seconds
elapse between any two points of
maximum brightness of the lamp.
Now is the critical moment. The
voltmeter needle creeps slowly from
zero to maximum, and just before it
reaches this latter point the switch is
sharply closed. The alternators are
now in parallel.

At first sight it seems as if the
switch should be closed just when

■SFCO/VDATfr VOL TS. AFTER. / SSC '■

the voltmeter indicates its maximum
deflection. This is not so, for there
is a certain time lag in the moving
parts of the voltmeter (or, if the
lamp is used, of the lamp filament)
that makes it necessary to close the
switch just before the point of maxi-
mum reading. The correct allowance
can be found only by experience, for
it will vary with the frequency of
the alternations and the oscillation pe-
riod of the needle. With the "hot
wire" type of voltmeter as much as 8
per cent, must sometimes be allowed
for.

It is important to remember that
it is always better to close the switch
too early than too late. In the first
case the machines are coming into
phase, and the "motor" currents set
up in their armatures, due to the
premature coupling, will tend to
bring the machines into synchronism.
On the other hand, if the switch is
not closed until the machines have
started to go out of phase, even al-
though the angular displacement is
the same as in the first case, the mo-
tor currents will be excessive and
must exert enough force to wrench
the machines into their right angular
relationship against their own inertia
and that of the prime mover. In the
case of heavy plant the neglect of
this point has been the cause of many
a bad breakdown.

Another important consideration is
to parallel the machines while the in-
coming machine is rising to syn-
chronous speed. Although the indi-
cations of the voltmeter are the same
whether the incoming set is rising or
falling- to synchronous speed, there is
a difference in result in the two
cases. If the speed is rising, the in-

*56

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

ertia causes the machine to pick up
a little load at the moment of parallel-
ing, which acts usefully as a brake ;
but if falling, the inertia carries it
still lower for an instant after
paralleling, and the loaded machine
is obliged to drive it as a motor in
order to keep it in phase, unless more
steam is given to the engine at once.

Here, again, the action is different
in the two cases. In the first, sim-
ply a breaking effect is required,
which at once produces synchronous
running, but in the second there
must be an accelerating effect, which
means more power and larger motor
currents from the already loaded ma-
chine.

The ideal conditions for synchro-
nizing two alternators are, therefore,
a steady and gradual increase in speed
of the incoming machine and a phase
on the voltmeter taking three or four
seconds to reach its maximum. The
switch is then closed shortly before
the maximum is attained, and the re-
sult should be perfect paralleling with
no noise or flicker.

The well-known optical effect pro-
duced by alternating- arcs can be used
as a help when synchronizing a ma-
chine. Consider the case of an alter-
nator with rotating field magnets. If
the light from an arc lamp is allowed
to fall upon the particular alternator
that supplies the current the poles
will appear to stand still, the reason
being that the light from the arc is
not continuous, but fluctuates with
the same frequency as the current
producing it. At the instant of maxi-
mum ' light the poles are brightly il-
luminated and thus rendered visible.
The light now dies down, and at its
next maximum, the poles having now
shifted forward one place, are seen
as before.

Now, if the incoming machine is
at a lower frequenc}^ than the one
feeding the lamps the poles will ap-
pear to travel backwards ; instead of
moving forward one place per period
of light fluctuation they advance
rather less. In like manner, if the
speed is higher, the poles will appear

as if they were moving forward.

This method is an excellent guide
to an engineman, for it tells him in
a moment whether the incoming ma-
chine is running above or below syn-
chronous speed. It does not tell him,
however, when the alternators are in
phase, and so cannot be used instead
of a synchronizer. The synchronizer
must still be used to tell when to
close the paralleling switch.

In most cases the easiest way of
getting the incoming machine to syn-
chronize synchronous speed is by
manipulating the main stop volve. If
the sets are very large a bye-pass
from the stop valve is very often
fitted, and this can be used to advan-
tage for synchronizing purposes. If
there is no bye-pass and the main
valve works stiffly, or is fitted with
a coarse thread, partial opening or
closing of drain cocks is occasionally
resorted to in order to slightly alter
the pressure in the cylinders. This
cannot be recommended except as a
makeshift ; a bye-pass is far prefera-
ble.

Should the engine be off the valve
and under the control of a governor
of the variable expansion type slight
differences of speed are often pro-
duced with difficulty, and here again
synchronizing can best be done on
the stop valve. If, however, the gov-
ernor is of the throttling type very
good adjustments can be produced by
its aid, and then the stop valve need
not be adjusted.

When the engine is brought up on
the stop valve the latter should be
opened up gradually directly the
switch is opened, but if put in on
the governor, self-regulation occurs
to a great extent.

The actual operation of synchro-
nizing is far more difficult than at
first sight appears to be the case.
The load may be constantly changing
and with it the speed of the engines ;
very little change in speed makes a
great difference on the synchronizer.
A large load suddenly thrown on
may convert a phase that gave every
indication of being good into one

SYNCHRONIZING ALTERNATORS

!57

FIG. 3. SYNCHRONISM INDICATOR

that starts to fall back just before it
reaches its maximum. Such an oc-
currence must be carefully guarded
against. Its prediction is purely a
matter of experience, and, although
an experienced man can generally tell
when a phase is going to be a "short
one," it would puzzle him to explain
matters.

Such intuition, which is the essence
of the art of synchronizing, can only
be acquired by actual practice, though
its acquisition may be largely helped
by a good insight into the theoretical
conditions that underlie the operation.

A MODERN SYNCHRONISM INDICATOR

During the last year or so many
types of synchronizing indicators have
been put on the market with the idea
of making the operation of parallel-
ing two alternators more simple.
Some of these indicators are of an
elaborate nature, whilst others are
very simple. One of the latter, which
works on the same principle as an
alternating current motor, will be de-
scribed.

The device as shown in Fig. 3 has
the appearance of an ordinary switch-

board instrument except that the
pointer has no retaining spring or
weight and is free to revolve through
360 degrees. When the speed of the
alternator to be synchronized is too
low the pointer revolves in one direc-
tion ; if it is too high the pointer re-
volves in the opposite direction. When
the speed is right' the pointer is sta-
tionary ; while when the speed is
right, and the pointer indicates zero,
the main switch may be closed and
the alternators paralleled.

As indicated by the sketch Fig. 4,
which refers to a single-phase in-
stallation, the indicator resembles an
alternating current motor, the field
being connected to the bus bars and
the armature to the machine required
to be synchronized. When the fre-
quencies of the two machines are
different the resultant field in the
armature of the indicator constantly
changes its position, making the arma-
ture revolve in one or other direc-
tions.

When the frequencies are the same
the resultant field is stationary in
space, and so the pointer connected
to the armature does not move. When

i58

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

INTERNAL CONNECTIONS OF SYNCHRONIZER

the machines are in phase with one
another the resultant field in the indi-
cator is stationary and occupies such
a position that the pointer connected
to the armature indicates zero.

Referring to Fig. 4, the stationary
field winding of the synchronism in-
dicator is connected to the bus bars,
that is, to the terminals of the Gen-
erator 1.

The revolving armature is con-
nected to the machine to be paralleled
through some inductance L and re-
sistance R, the latter usually being
an electric lamp The armature is of
the drum type, having two coils
wound in series and rigidly connected
at right angles Their ends, as shown,
are brought out to collector rings D,
C and E The inductance and resist-
ance L and R are used for "split-
ting" the phase of the armature cur-
rent, so as to produce a revolving
field similar to that in the case of a
single phase induction motor.

Thus we have a stationary pulsa-
ting field produced by the already
loaded Generator 1, and a revolving
field (slit-phase arrangement) pro-
duced by the machine to be paralleled,
Generator 2. If the frequencies of
the two generators are not the same

the two fields (revolving and pulsa-
ting) will not be in synchronism.
There will consequently be an inter-
action exerted betwen the fields tend-
ing to bring them into synchronism.

As the armature is free to revolve,
this will easily be brought about by
a rotation of the armature at a speed
varying with the difference of fre-
quencies between the two machines.
The more nearly the two machines
approach synchronism the less is this
difference, and the less is the speed
of the armature. When they are ac-
tually in synchronism the armature
will be stationary, for there will then
be no interaction between the fields
tending to cause rotation.

This does not infer, however, that
the machines are in phase ; only for
one particular position of the arma-
ture is this so. Things must there-
fore be arranged so that when the
armature is stationary the pointer
points to the zero, this showing that
the machines are not only in syn-
chronism but also in phase.

It need hardly be stated that this
zero position of the indicator is ex-
perimentally obtained in the testing
department of the workshops before
the indicator is put on the market.

SYNCHRONIZING ALTERNATORS

J59

No slit-phase arrangement is needed
for a synchronism indicator when
used on two or three-phase service.
If a three-phase service, the phases
are connected either directly or indi-
rectly to the three slip rings, D, C
and E. A revolving field is produced
in the armature as in the single phase
case, the machines being in synchro-
nism and in phase when the armature
is stationary and the pointer points to
the zero position.

SYNCHRONIZING MOTOR GENERATOR
SETS

Many alternating current systems
include motor generator sets used in
conjunction with batteries. In such
cases the motor generators must
again be synchronized. To do this
the direct current machine is run up
as a motor from the batteries, a re-
sistance being inserted in series with
its field. The field of the alternator
is then switched on, rough voltage
adjustment made, and the synchro-
nizing apparatus connected in circuit.
To increase the speed of the motor
generator resistance is added to the
motor field until synchronism is ob-
tained. If a fine adjustment is re-
quired, and the resistance is found to
give either too high or too low
a speed, recourse may be had to
slightly shifting the motor brushes.
When the motor generator is in syn-
chronism and phase the switch may

be closed and the machine loaded on
the direct current side. The field of
the alternator should not, however,
be excited until a speed near to syn-
chronism is obtained, for otherwise a
larger starting current will be re-
quired on the direct current side,
owing to the eddy currents (and con-
sequently opposing torque) that are
set up in the rotating armature.

Motor generators, being light ma-
chines, require less care than heavy
plant in synchronizing. They may
be thrown in when a phase difference
exists that, in the case of steam sets,
would result in blown fuses. They
have little inertia and can therefore
be dragged into step very easily ; for
the same reason, however, they do
not require much in the way of a
sudden increase in load to cause them
to break out of step.

Careless synchronizing, even in the
case of motor generators, should be
avoided as much as possible, for it
sets up strains which ultimately have
a bad effect.

In this article polyphase work has
only lightly been touched upon, for
the reason that the procedure is gen-
erally the same, synchronizing being
carried out on one phase. High
voltage systems, too, have not been
mentioned. The procedure here is
much the same, except that trans-
formers have to be used in order to
obtain low operating pressures.

SHEET STEEL PILING

By J. F. Springer

I.— DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY METHODS

In the present article Mr. Springer discusses the development of sheet piling for the construction of
foundations in connection with the demands of conditions in quicksand, loose earth, and water; passing
through the uses of timber, cast iron, and the earlier forms of sheet metal interlocking piles, and covering
practice in Europe and America. The second article will describe very fully the most modern types of
sheet-steel piling, with numerous illustrations of the different types, methods of driving, and possibilities
of use. Both articles thus cover the development of the subject in its entirety.— The Editor.

TO build upon the solid rock is,
no doubt, a constructional ideal.
But it is often difficult of at-
tainment. The rock upon which we
seek to lay our foundation-wall or pier
may be many feet below the surface
directly accessible, and the intervening
material may be difficult. This diffi-
culty may relate not so much to re-
moval of the material excavated, as to
the control of that portion that is left
behind. Thus, this material may be a
quicksand, when the problem is not so
much how one is to excavate, but how
one is to maintain the non-excavated
sand in statu quo. Or, the intervening
material may be only water, when pre-
cisely the same difficulty comes to the
fore. Or, the problem may assume the
form presented when the strata them-
selves have no inclination to flow, or
otherwise change the positions of their
parts, but contain practically an inex-
haustible supply of water.

To meet such difficulties as those re-
ferred to, sheet-piling was invented.
I had written "had been invented," but
this would give an erroneous view of
the origin of the sheet-pile. That or-
igin is certainly not connected with the
present. The problem of maintaining
the banks of a ditch is too old for sim-
ple and effective solution through the
instrumentality of the sheet-pile to
have had its origin within the limits of
that which we ordinarily call history.
Indeed, necessity must have mothered
this invention many times afresh dur-

160

ing the historic ages. The earliest
sheet-pile was, without doubt, an un-
hewn timber. And it deserves the ad-
jective "sheet," in spite of the want
of flatness in the individual. The wall
of upright timbers constituted a sheet
of material as much as the thinnest of
the most modern forms. With an un-
recorded history reaching back be-
yond, no doubt, any possible research,
the sheet-pile never seems to have
passed through any especial develop-
ment. The squared timber was em-
ployed. Such devices as the tongue-
and-groove arrangement have been
used — and with considerable success.
Perhaps the very highest type of
wooden sheet-pile is the Wakefield
sheeting, which was invented and pat-
ented in the latter part of the nine-
teenth century. In Fig. I, we have
shown, in cross-section, three such
piles assembled. Each consists of three
planks identical in width and thick-
ness. These are bolted and nailed to-
gether to form a unit-pile, having a
face equal to that of a single plank and
a tongue and groove of the depth of
one-half the width of a plank. Driven
in the manner indicated in the figure,
this style of sheeting has been fairly
successful. An improvement that the
writer ventures to suggest is indicated
in Fig. 2. The central plank, while
kept of the same thickness as the oth-
ers, is narrower. Placed so as to form
a tongue of one-half its own width, it
will form a pile that, when a number

SHEET PILING

161

FIG. 1. WAKEFIELD WOODEN SHEET PILING

are assembled, the tongue will fall
short of completely filling the groove.
If the piles are intended for temporary
construction, the open spaces thus left
may be filled with clay and so rendered
water-tight. If the construction is
permanent, the clay may be replaced
by concrete or cement grout. An-
other type of wood pile is that shown,
in cross-section, in Fig. 3. Here all
the piles are double-grooved, the
tongue being a separate piece of wood.
If one uses such piles they should not

out of such conditions. That the en-
gineer must frequently have to deal
with terrific forces operating against
his piling is well illustrated in connec-
tion with the great disaster at New-
port, England. At this point in the
Bristol Channel, a very large lock —
1,000 ft. X 100 ft. — is in course of
construction. Two wing-walls are to
form part of the entrance to this lock
from the Channel-side and to form re-
taining-walls for the protection of ad-
joining embankments. As a temporary

FIG. 2. IMPROVEMENT ON WAKEFIELD SHEET PILING

be driven, it would seem, until the
tongue has been inserted in one of the
piles. Otherwise, the pile, being
driven, would be insufficiently guided
— unless conditions are quite simple or
other precautions extraordinary — and
the success of subsequently driving in
the tongue would become doubtful.
The simplicity and accuracy with
which the Wakefield wooden pile may
be fabricated, together with the
strength of the finished product, com-
mand this type where wooden sheeting
seems advisable.

It requires but little thought to con-
vince one that sheeting — whether
wooden or not — will often have to
withstand enormous pressures. Thus,
the wall of piling may have the duty
of retaining a pocket of quicksand,
which, in turn, may be supporting not
only its own weight but some other
and tremendous weight of overlying
material. The sheet of piles will have
to be of very considerable strength or
be very securely braced to withstand
the great horizontal thrusts developed

2-5

protection during construction, an em-
bankment was thrown across the fore-
shore. The problem of securing an
adequate foundation for the walls was
found very difficult. This was largely
due to the treacherous character of the
considerable stratum of mud overlying
a deposit of sandy gravel and silt. Be-
low is a hard marl upon which all
foundations are to be laid. The tem-
porary embankment has not proved
water-tight, but, perhaps, this circum-
stance has played no considerable part
in the disastrous results. However,,
to reach the marl and lay the founda-
tions open trench-work was decided
upon. Upon July 2, 1909, the trench

FIG. 3. DOUBLE-GROOVED SHEET PILING

l62

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

for one of the wing-walls had been ex-
cavated to its full depth and the diffi-
cult strata were being withheld by a
very stout wall of wooden sheet-piles.
The timbers entering into this con-
struction consisted of pitch pine
baulks, 1.3" X 13" and 14" X 14" in
cross-section. The struts were only a
little lighter and were, apparently,
used with liberality. However, this
trench was fifty or more feet deep.
When all was ready to begin with the
concreting, suddenly, and without
warning, the protective system of piles
and struts gave way. And so quickly
did the disaster become approximately
complete, less than half the workmen
escaped. The trench had been kept
clear of water by a pumping-plant,
which was destroyed in the common
ruin. Some of the men were, no doubt,
only imprisoned. But the failure- of
the pumping system sealed the doom
of all not liberated, with but little de-
lay, by permitting submergence.

It is such cases as this that impress
the engineer with the need for
strength in his sheet-piles. It is, per-
haps, true that the Newport disaster
was largely due to conditions that
mere strength of the sheeting would
have been ineffectual in meeting. At
the same time, the question of strength
must have been a large — even if we
grant that it was not a controlling —
factor.

It would be much more practical,
there can scarcely be any doubt, to se-
cure enormous strength of wall with
steel sheeting than with wooden.
Weight for weight, the steel is much
the stronger. Then, too, it may be put
into a form that enables its resistance
to a lateral thrust to be much aug-
mented without any increase in weight.
This management of form is next to
impossible with wooden piling. Of
course, no style of sheeting would have
been effective in taking care of an up-
ward thrust, as seems to have occurred
at Newport. This, however, is not its
office. It is the duty of sheet-piling to
withstand lateral pressure. And there
can be no question that this can be

more effectively performed by steel
than by wood.

But there is a further marked inef-
fectiveness in the wooden sheet-pile.
This is in respect to the nature of the
interlock. We may picture the wooden
lengths all driven home in precisely
the position desired, with all tongues
in their grooves — the whole forming a
continuous wall. But, while we may
grant the continuity of the wall on the
day when the work is complete, we
may well raise the question whether
that continuity may be expected to
continue. This will depend upon sur-
rounding conditions. If, however, the
sheeting is to be subjected to a lateral,
unbalanced thrust, we may inquire
whether the interlock should not assist
in the prevention of a disruption of the
surface. With such interlocks as those
shown in Figs. 1, 2 and 3, there is lit-
tle or no resistance to such a thrust, if
it extends from top to bottom of a part
of the sheeting, or if it is especially
strong for a less vertical distance. It
seems impractical to construct the
wooden sheet-pile as to make the in-
terlock an effective participator in re-
sistance to severe unbalanced thrusts.
But this may be done, and is, in fact,
being done with steel forms.

A further problem encountered with
the use of wooden sheeting consists in
the difficulty of driving it through
hard soils. The blows, required fre-
quently, become so severe that the pile
is split or it is splintered at the foot.
Now, steel-sheeting may be so made
that when further penetration has re-
ally become an impossibility, the im-
pacts of the driving hammer are spent
in merely upsetting the metal on the
ends of the pile.

However, the facts that the wood
sheet-pile is readily fabricated, and
that the material is often close at hand,
are considerations that will probably
prevent it from being entirely super-
seded. At the same time, its deficien-
cies are so patent that as early as the
first quarter of the nineteenth century
a style of cast-iron sheet-pile was in-
vented and used in England. The first
patent seems to have been that issued

SHEET PILING

163

imiiihiiiimniin IIIIIIIIHIIIIIIMMHHH

FIG. 4.- — THE EWART CAST SHEET PILE

to Mr. Peter Ewart, 1822, by the Brit-
ish government. But he was antici-
pated by Mr. Mathews, who had actu-
ally used iron sheet-piles previous to
the date of the patent. The form of
what thus appears to have been the
first metallic sheet-pile is given in Fig.
4, in cross-section. These piles were
employed by Mr. Mathews in the con-
struction of the foundations of the
north pier of Bridlington Harbor.
However, more than one style was

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mmwmmmw

mmwmfl

FIG. 5. EWART LOCKED PILE

employed. In other forms used it
seems that there was not the real inter-
lock shown in this figure — only an
overlap. These pioneer iron piles were
not very long, being only about eight
or nine feet in length, as we are in-
formed by Mr. M. A. Borthwick.
They were one-half inch thick and
about two feet — or somewhat less —
in width. In spite of their inconsider-
able length, these sheet-piles have a
historic interest.

But the first patentee seems, as al-
ready noted, to have been Ewart. To
him much credit is to be given because
of the educating influence he exerted
in relation to the actual introduction
of his system of piling. In Fig. 5, we
have a cross-sectional view of two of
Ewart's piles as shown in his patent.
In Fig. 6, we have the same type of
pile, slightly modified. This last is
said to represent some piles actually
used. In Fig. 7, we have still another
form. It was not lone after the issu-

ance of the patent that some extensive
applications were made in works at
London and Liverpool. At London,
for instance, they were employed in a
large coffer-dam in the Thames, con-
structed with the object of laying a
suction-pipe. At Liverpool they were

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FIG. 6. A FORM OF EWART PILE

found serviceable in pier-work. Some
difficulty was experienced at Liverpool
in driving the piling vertically. Some
further difficulty arose, apparently,
from the line of fall of the hammer be-
ing out of alignment with the axis of.
the pile when driving into heavy soil.
But, after all was said and done, they
were highly appreciated by the engi-
neer in charge. A novel method was
followed at London when forming a
coffer-dam. This was to arrange the
piles in their proper positions, driving
them in but slightly. The pile driver
then went round and round the work,
sending each pile down a little upon
each trip.

In 1824, as Mr. Borthwick tells us,
the Ewart sheet-pile was again used.
The application here was in the foun-
dation-wall connected with Downes
Wharf, St. Katherine's. This is prob-
ably the first instance where metallic
sheet-piling was used in permanent
work. In this construction the form
of pile was modified soon after begin-
ning. The form actually used for the
bulk of the work is shown, in cross-
section, in Fig. 8. Comparing this
view with that shown in Fig. 7, we see
that the modification consists mostly
in a simplification of the interlock or

-EWART INTERLOCKING PILES

164

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

BPj"~-

FIG. 8. EWART CAST PILE

joint. The interlocks shown in the
Ewart piles of Figs. 6 and 7 are such
in the modern sense. They permit the
piles to be separated in no direction
except a vertical one. However, it was
found difficult to drive them in line if
the original form was used, on ac-
count of the depth and hardness of the
soil to be penetrated. It will be no-
ticed that the reinforcing rib was con-
siderably diminished. This rib, when
the pile was in place, was on the out-
side. The piles used in this perma-
nent construction were 14 feet long,
and were driven nearly their entire
length.

In Mr. Ewart's specification — 1822
— he provides for a difficulty he seems
to have anticipated might occur. In
order to take care of any possible ex-
pansion and contraction of a coffer-
dam wall constructed with his piling,
he devised a special form of pile that
could be used at intervals. This loop
form of pile is shown, in cross-section,
in Fig. 9. The writer is not aware,
however, that this precautionary device
was ever found necessary in any of the

FIG. 9. THE EWART EXPANSION JOINT

numerous applications of Ewart's
piles.

But in 1832 was completed a work
in which cast-iron sheet-piling found
its first extensive application. The lin-
ear extent of sheet-pile wharfing, con-
structed at the sea-entrance of the
Norwich and Lowestoft navigation, on
the east coast of England, was about
2,000 feet. The piles used were 30
feet in length, and weighed about
3,300 pounds each. The form used is
conspicuous for the depth of flange.

FIG. 10. CAST IRON PILING AT LOWESTOFT

In Fig. 10, we have, at the top, a view
of a cross-section about the middle of
the length. The flange was reduced to
about 6 inches at the top, where the
angles between flange and pile were
blocked-in to form a suitable head to
receive the impacts of the pile-driver.
At the bottom, the flange was reduced
to almost nothing at the point by a
stepped construction. See Fig. 10.
This last seems a very wise provision,
as, thus, no taper was formed to
wedge the pile out of the vertical.
These piles were driven with the
flanges at the back. It will be noticed

SHEET PILING

165

FIG. 11. SHEET PILING CONSTRUCTION AT BRUNSWICK WHARF

that the idea of Mr. Ewart and Mr.
Mathew of an interlocking relation,
secured by the form of the piles them-
selves, is here dispensed with. How-
ever, some system of keeping the piles
longitudinally in contact was neces-
sary, and this was provided by means
of a clasp or clip of wrought-iron riv-
eted at the bottom and on one side of
the pile to be driven. This engaged
the pile already in place, and so pre-
vented a forward or backward dis-
placement. Separation laterally was
avoided by giving the bottom an in-
clination toward the pile in place. The
driving operation would then tend to
wedge the new pile against the old.
This wall of iron sheeting was secured
to the bank by land-ties.

An important application of cast-
iron sheeting was made about 1834, in
the construction of Brunswick Wharf,
on the Thames. While the linear ex-
tent of this work was only about 720
feet, and so renders it scarcelv com-

parable with that last described, it is,
yet, of importance as corroborating
the evidence supplied by that work for
the continuance of confidence in the
use of cast-iron sheet-piles in perma-
nent work. In Fig. 11 is a view of a
front elevation of a portion of this
wharf. It will be noted that the piles
are of two kinds. There are the main
piles, arranged with an interval of
about seven feet between centers. A
series of sheet-piles fill up the inter-
vening space. These sheet-piles resem-
ble those used at Downes Wharf.
However, there are two reinforcing
ribs, and these are placed to the rear.
The overlap is omitted in that pile
where it would otherwise conflict with
the main pile adjoining. In driving
these piles through the coarse gravel
and an occasional layer of hard Black-
wall rock, no great trouble was experi-
enced in keeping them in line and fill-
ing the spaces left between the main
piles that were driven first. Only a

1 66

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

few special piles were necessary to ef-
fect the closure of the bays. The main
piles, because of transportation rea-
sons arising out of their weight and
length, were cast in two pieces. The
sheet-piles were about 22 feet long;
the main piles about 37^4 feet, the
lower portion being about 25 J/2 feet.
The web of the sheet-piling averaged
about iyi inches in thickness. The
weight of such a sheet-pile was about
a short ton. Approximately 600 piles
— about 500, apparently, being sheet-
piles — were driven. Of this number
only sixteen were broken in the driv-
ing operation. And it was thought
that imperfect casting was responsible
for eleven of these. The cost of the
piling was about $35.00 per ton, deliv-
ered. By examining the front eleva-
tion, shown in Fig. 11, it will be seen
that plates were used to close the bays
between the main piles above the
heads of the sheet-piles.

Cast-iron sheeting seems to have
had its principal application in Eng-
land. There it was, apparently, first
invented and first used. The writer
knows of few or no cases outside of
England or English dependencies
where it has been employed. That
such piling still retains the favor of
the English engineer is witnessed by
two recent applications of it to per-
manent construction in Egypt. As is
well-known, the Nile is approximately
the only source from which this fertile
land draws its water-supply. The
yearly volume is enormous, but this
would be partly wasted if artificial
means were not employed for its con-
servation and distribution. The great
Assuan Dam, in Upper Egypt, is a re-
cent example of the construction nec-
essary to effect these objects.

Other irrigation works are the ca-
nals that carry off water from the Nile
and distribute it over a wider expanse
than would otherwise be possible. One
of the most important of these distrib-
uting streams is the Ibrahimia Canal,
which branches off from the Nile
about 340 miles, downstream, from
the Assuan Dam. This canal is, of
course, entirely dependent upon the

great river for its supply of water. In
fact, its usefulness to the adjacent
country is dependent upon the water-
level of the Nile. When the Nile is
flooded, there is plenty of water. But
when there is low Nile, it has been
found difficult to effect an adequate
distribution. Consequently, it has long
been desired to secure in summer a
higher level of the river at the point
where discharge is made into the canal.
It was deemed inadvisable to construct
a solid dam across the river, on ac-
count of the level that would, thus,
have been produced during the flood
season. And so it was decided to build
across the river an arched viaduct on
a masonry floor. The point near
Asyut, selected for this barrage, is
where the river straightens out below
the place of origin of the Ibrahimia
Canal. Here the width of the Nile is
somewhat over half a mile. The bot-
tom was found to be subject to violent
fluctuations in depth. At first, it was
expected that the masonry floor could
be laid at different levels, but, upon
the discovery of the changes taking
place in the bed, it was decided to
adopt a single level. We are particu-
larly concerned with the foundation
for this floor, for it was in connection
with it that the cast-iron sheeting was
employed. The present example is im-
portant, not so much on account of the
particular material used in the piles,
but for two other reasons. First — the
employment of metallic piling in a
large and important engineering
work ; and second — the significant fact
that the original plan of sinking rec-
tangular wells to form the main por-
tions of the up-stream and down-
stream curtain walls was abandoned
and the curtain walls actually con-
structed of metallic sheeting. The
fact that these sheet-piles were of cast
iron, and not of steel, need not trouble
us. If cast iron is a suitable material,
' then all the more so is this the case
with steel. So that this example may
very properly be cited in support of
the use of steel-sheeting in permanent
aqueous construction. The floor was
built about 87 feet wide and nearly 10

SHEET PILING

167

feet thick. It consisted in the main of
a lower stratum of concrete about a
yard thick, overlaid by rubble ma-
sonry. The cast-iron sheeting was
driven so as to form a curtain wall on
both the up-stream and down-stream
sides, reaching 13 feet below the floor.
The heads of the piles were made flush
with the upper surface of the concrete
in the floor. Suitable aprons were con-
structed on each side. These were
about 65 feet broad. As the floor was
constructed during the first season, the
curtain walls of iron piles formed the
lateral boundaries of the concrete in
the floor.

About 3,000 tons of iron sheeting
were used in connection with the bar-
rage alone. Another 1,000 tons were
consumed in the regulator for the Ib-
rahimia Canal. This work was a bar-
rage of the same general character as
that across the Nile. Both construc-
tions, including their locks, were com-
pleted in 1902.

A similar work, both as to general
design and mode of construction, is
the Zifta Barrage in the delta region
of the Nile. The same style of cast-
iron sheeting was employed to form
an upstream and a down-stream cur-
tain-wall. It is, perhaps, worthy of
note that, to secure a water-tight joint
between the concrete floor and the pil-
ing, each layer of concrete was re-
moved to the depth of four inches
along the line of junction and the
space filled with neat cement. This
construction was completed in 1903.

From these instances of the Asyut
and Zifta barrages, both completed
only a few years ago, it will
be seen that the history of the
cast-iron pile must have been a very
favorable one to have induced English
engineers, after eighty years' experi-
ence, to adopt it for permanent work
in two such important constructions.
And all that can be said in favor of the
cast-iron sheet-pile may be repeated
with respect to the steel-pile. Much
more of advantage, also, may be
added. It is difficult to understand why
the engineers in charge of these Egyp-

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Coal

FIG. 12. SHAFT SINKING AT THE NEW HOPE MINE

tian works should have selected cast-
iron when they might have had steel.
Nevertheless, they used the cast-iron
sheeting, and, apparently, with suc-
cess. So that with better material and
a better design, the recent types of
steel sheet-piles, it may well be
claimed, promise a great deal to the
engineer.

STEEL SHEET-PILING

Perhaps the very earliest employ-
ment of steel-sheeting was when the
Germans, about two decades ago, made
use of it under trying circumstances.
At the New Hope Mines, in the Mag-
deburg mining district, a shaft was be-
ing sunk to the coal-seam 125 feet be-
low the surface. As shown, in Fig. 12,
there was to be penetrated, first of all,
a considerable deposit of gravel, 39
feet in thickness. The water-level in
this was close to the surface. Below
the gravel was a thick stratum, 49 feet.

i68

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 13. THE HAAS PILING FOR MINE SHAFT

of blue clay. This was underlaid by
34 feet of quicksand. The remaining
3 feet or so were principally occupied
by a layer of clay. A masonry cylin-
der, properly shod with a cutting edge,
was started down. When this was
about to penetrate the blue clay and
thus shut off the water from the
gravel, it stuck. It became necessary
to shut off the water. This was ac-
complished and further penetration se-
cured by the use of timber-sheeting.
The room required for this and its
bracing reduced the cross-section of
the shaft. This would have been of
no especial importance, perhaps, had it
not been for the trouble occasioned
later by the quicksand. Timbering was
carried down through the clay until
only about 6 feet more remained. It
was expected to penetrate the quick-
sand by means of the Haas system of
tubular-sheeting. A plug of concrete,
5 feet thick, was laid on the floor of
the shaft, and on this a 13- foot section
of tubing was set up. This plug was
to restrain the quicksand, which had
broken through from below. The tube
was put down through the concrete by
means of cutting devices attached to
them. But scarcely was this accom-
plished when the quicksand reasserted
its presence : and that in spite of a 6-
foot layer of gravel adding its weight
to that of the concrete. It seems that
this weight of gravel could not be in-
creased, because the tube could not be
extended upward on account of inter-
ference by the timber water-curtain.
The endeavor was now made to carry
the tubing downward by hydraulic
pressure, working from a point about
60 feet below the surface. This pro-
ceeded successfully, in spite of the up-

rising quicksand, until a depth of 107
feet was reached. But, surrounding
buildings had now manifested settle-
ment ; the masonry wall at the upper
part of the shaft was cracking. With
the water coming in from above, and
the quicksand from below, was every
expectation that a collapse of the work
would be precipitated by an attempt to
persist in the present procedure. Still
there was a distance of about 4 or 5
yards to penetrate to the impervious
stratum overlying the coal. Things
were in a critical condition. Some-
thing had to be done, and something
different, apparently, from what had
been tried. The quicksand could, with-
out doubt, be overcome, if only a suffi-
cient weight of gravel were imposed.
Out of this necessity, one of the
most successful forms of steel sheet-
piling was born. The manager of the
mines, a Mr. Simon, influenced, as it
seems, by the Haas system of tubing,
devised the pile shown in cross-section
in Fig. 13. The elements of this sheet-
ing were things at hand, or easily got-
ten. Two channels entered into the
construction of what may be termed a
main pile ; an I-beam constituted the
sheet-pile proper. The manner of con-
structing the main pile was to arrange
the channels immovable face to face
and in such position as to permit the
interlocking of an I-beam at each side
of the box-like structure formed. In
the present case, five pairs of separa-
tors were distributed along the length
of a main pile and securely riveted to
the two channels. The sectional form
and arrangement of these separators
will be understood from the figure. It
will be noted that the interior of the
box-like piles permitted filling with

SHEET PILING

t69

concrete. It is important to observe
two things. First, the interlock is ex-
tremely effective. Sheeting once in
place becomes to all intents and pur-
poses a single piece of metal. Second,
it is possible to make the piling water-
tight.

The shaft was filled with gravel well
up to the lower part of the masonry
cylinder. The pieces of piling were
properly assembled with the aid of
four rings, arranged on the inside of
the cylindrical wall of sheeting. Later,
these assisted also in keeping the piling
in place during the driving. It was
necessary to proceed cautiously, as it
was not deemed advisable to attempt
to remove the timbering all at once.
So, section bjf section, as it were, the
planks were withdrawn and the steel
piles well driven down into the blue
clay. Upon being driven in, the wall
of steel was made water-tight with
concrete. Water, however, rose out
of the joint between the stone cylinder
and the piles. This finally was cut off
by permitting the water to come in and
rise to its full level, then filling the
space between stone and steel with ce-
ment-mortar. The deposition of this
concrete was accomplished from the
surface by means of tubes. In two
weeks, the water was pumped off and
the joint found to be successful. In
short, it now became possible, as Herr
Schmeisser informs us, to extend the
Haas tube upward. This permitted the
use of more gravel, to overcome the
upward pressure of the quicksand, and
the elevation of the working point
from which to proceed with the put-
ting down of the tube through the
stratum of quicksand.

By referring to Fig. 12 — right-hand
view — the steel-piling may be seen in
place, extending some four or five
yards from a point about the foot of
the stone cylinder. The left-hand view
shows the piling part way down. In
Fig. 13 we have a fragmentary hori-
zontal section.

THE STEEL SHEET-PILE IN ENGLAND

The use of steel-sheeting by British
engineers has scarcely been common

enough to justify the assumption of a
well-settled practice. However, there
has been at least one large construction
in England where steel sheet-piles
were extensively used, besides one or
two minor instances of their applica-
tion. But we may be sure that the na-
tion that recognized the advantages of
iron-sheeting will very extensively em-
ploy steel-piles now that their intro-
duction has begun. Let us consider, in
detail, what seems to be the first large
use of steel sheet-piling in England.

THE OUTER BARRIER OF THE HODBAR-

ROW IRON MINES

The Hodbarrow Iron Mines are sit-
uated at the southernmost end of the
peninsula in which the county of Cum-
berland terminates. For many years
mining in this vicinity has been carried
on. In 1868, as Mr. H. S. Bidwell
tells us, a large body of ore was dis-
covered. This deposit, beginning at a
point back from the sea, extends sea-
ward and downward. The dip is, how-
ever, slight. In carrying on operations
for the excavation of the ore, some
protection against the sea became nec-
essary, because of the insignificant
height of the natural sandbanks along
the shore. And so in the early eighties
a timber revetment was constructed of
wooden sheet-piles. The main piles,
of 12 X 12 timbers, were placed about
20 feet apart. Between these the 6-
inch sheeting proper was driven into
an average depth of about 7 feet.
There were wales in front of this
wooden wall. The main piles were
land-tied to other piles 60 feet distant.
But, construction was scarcely com-
pleted when the work was severely
damaged. Knowing that ore existed
seaward, and, believing that a more
substantial barrier was necessary to
prevent serious loss from the efforts
of the sea, the mining company pro-
ceeded to build a wall further out.
This was a concrete wall protected
by a rear-embankment of clay and
by a curtain-wall and trench of the
same material extending into an un*-
derlying clay-stratum. That these pro-
visions were, unfortunately, scarcely

170

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

adequate was proved when a bed of
quicksand was uncovered within the
working years later. A portion of the
work subsided, owing to the resultant
undermining far below the curtain-
wall. However, certainty as to the ex-
istence of a large body of ore, extend-
ing seaward, was furnished by the re-
sults of boring operations. It was re-
solved, in view of all the facts, to build
a third sea-defense in the form of an
arc, and of such size and so disposed
as to safeguard the operations neces-
sary to the recovery of the ore now
known to exist beneath the foreshore.
The magnitude of this Outer Barrier
may be understood when it is said it
is over a mile and a quarter long, has a
maximum height of 40 feet, and a
maximum basal width of 210 feet. The
land inclosed and thus reclaimed is
about 170 acres. For the larger part
of the four and one-half years that
construction was going on, 1,200
men were employed. Expenditures
amounted to £560,000. In view of
the size of the undertaking, the profes-
sional standing of the engineers who
were more or less in contact with the
work, and, finally, of the previous ex-
perience of the company with sea-de-
fenses, we may safely conclude that
this structure is a fair representative
of the best engineering of the kind in
England. That steel-sheeting here was
used in permanent work, not only ex-
tensively but more extensively than
originally planned, may be taken as a
very strong indication that the steel
sheet-pile has come to stay.

The barrier consists essentially of
an outer and an inner limestone-bank
with an intermediate filling of clay.
The outer embankment, which is, of
course, much the more massive of the
two, is protected for nearly a quarter-
mile from each end on this seaward
side by large pieces of limestone. The
protection of the long central section is
afforded chiefly by heavy blocks of
concrete deposited irregularly but not
pell-mell. There is a core of pud-
dled clay imbedded in the clay-filling
between the limestone-banks. A cur-
tain-wall extends beneath this trench

to impervious material, or, where that
is too far down, for a considerable dis-
tance. This curtain, it was decided, at
first, should consist, with the exception
of the 33.5 linear feet of the concrete
foundation of the sluice-culverts, of
puddled trench, pitch pine sheet-piling
and steel sheet-piling. Of the total of
6,870 linear feet of curtain, the trench
was to be employed for 3,750.5 feet, or
considerably more than one-half the
distance ; the pitch pine sheet-piling
was to be used for 1,390 feet; and the
steel sheet-piling for the 1,696 feet.
When actual construction took place,,
the distribution was quite different.
The puddled trench lost enormously,
being reduced to 1,040 feet — less,
than one-third the original length ; the
pitch pine sheet-piling gained from the
trench, but lost more heavily to the
steel-sheeting, concluding with 1,200
feet net ; while the steel sheet-piling in-
creased to 4,630 feet, not counting
auxiliary sheet-piles used. The steel-
sheeting actually used was 67 per cent,
of the total, whereas the amount con-
templated had been scarcely 25 per
cent. ; the steel lost to neither of the
others. On the contrary, it gained
from each, being substituted both for
the puddled trench and wooden sheet-
ing. In addition, steel sheeting in two
lines were used across and beneath the
culvert location. The significance of
all this is emphasized when we remem-
ber we are dealing with permanent
construction alone. A further deepen-
ing of the emphasis is made when we
consider that corrosion is a factor to
be taken into account.

In view of the substitution of steel
sheeting for wooden piling and pud-
dled trench, a word as to the character
of the two latter will be in place. The
wooden sheeting consisted of timbers,
12 X 12 inches or more in cross-sec-
tion, the length varying from 18 feet
to 27 feet. Grooves 3^4 X 1% inches
were cut to accommodate tongues
3/4 X V/2 inches. These piles had a
4-foot penetration into clay at the bot-
tom. The tops were 3 feet above the
ground. A heavy waling. 12 X 6
inches in cross-section, was bolted to

SHEET PILING

171

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FIG. 14. SHEET PILING USED AT THE HODBARROW MINE

172

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

the piles on the inner faces. It will be
seen from the foregoing details that
the wooden sheeting was of a very
substantial type. The trench used was
ordinarily 7 feet wide and was keyed
into rock or clay to a substantial depth.
The principal reasons for the substitu-
tion of steel sheeting are instructive.
( 1 ) Attempts to drive the wooden
piles when a point about 2,400 feet
from the west end proved unsuccess-
ful. The ground was very hard in-
deed. Certain of the wooden piles,
upon being withdrawn after having
refused to pentrate further, were
found to have "their ends burred into
fibre." (2) The upper surface of the
material into which it was necessary to
key the trench was found to be much
more irregular than the preliminary
borings had indicated. Thus a dip of
4 feet would be encountered at one
place between the front and back ; at
another spot, there would be a dip
along the line of the work of 45 de-
grees. It had been intended to use
the trench at each end and at the cen-
ter. Steel sheeting was substituted at
this center, and for more than half of
one end the total substitution of steel
for clay being 2,360.5 feet. We have,
then, these facts : If the wood could
not be driven the steel could ; and if
the trench could not find a suitable
footing the steel could. This ability
of steel sheeting to meet varying and
exacting requirements is one of its
chief advantages.

In Fig. 14 is shown in cross-sec-
tion the system of steel sheet-piling ac-
tually employed. This, however, was
not adopted until after experimenta-
tion with a somewhat similar style.

The forms and arrangement, sub-
stantially as in Fig. 14, were then
devised and a trial bay, consisting of
three main piles and two intervening
sheet-piles, was driven and examined
to a depth of 29 feet. This examina-
tion disclosed a slight bulging. No
interlock was broken up. Testing for
the percolation of sea-water dis-
closed that, if there was any at
all, it must have been negligible.
It will be understood, upon com-

paring the successful and unsuccess-
ful bays, that the chief difference con-
sists in a marked increase in the stiff-
ness of the sheeting as a whole. While,
no doubt, the main piles of the success-
ful bay are the stronger, the rein-
forcement is, on the whole, uniformly
distributed. The I-beams in the sheet-
ing, driven in the work, were 9X7
inches. The angles secured to it were
3X3 inches. The groove, thus left
for the adjoining sheet-piles, would
thus be about 1 inch in thickness.
The plates used for the sheet-piles
proper seem to have been tyi inch in
thickness. Their width was 25 inches.
The reinforcing T-bars were, appa-
rently, 3X5 inches. Upon examin-
ing the elevation shown in Fig. 14
it will be seen that additional rein-
forcement was deemed necessary, par-
ticularly of T-bars at the bottom.
The form of the point of the sheet-
pile will be noticed, especially the
horns for the clearance of the grooves
when driving.

What will strike the attention of
the American engineer is the elab-
orate arrangement adopted for main-
taining the alignment of this piling
during the driving operations. It
was necessary to provide a working
platform for the pile-driving appara-
tus, so timber piles were driven to
afford a support. Two rows of these
piles, 10 feet apart, were driven, one
row to the front and one to the back
of the line where the piling was to be
placed. Heavy walings were secured
to these, leaving a free interval of 8
inches. Distance-blocks were ar-
ranged, with intervals of 15 inches
between them, to permit the intro-
duction of the main piles, 7 X 15
inches in section. These blocks were
of such length as to regulate the in-
tervals between the flanges of the
main piles at 25^3 inches. There was
thus a clearance of ]/% inch allowed
for the introduction of the sheet-pile
proper. The main piles were first
driven, then the intervening sheet-
piles. It is said that this work of
driving the piles was so accurately
accomplished that but one special

SHEET PILING

[73

closing pile was needed on die whole
work.1 Very few sheet-piles jammed.

The driving was, for the most part,
accomplished by the use of the ordi-
nary method. However, in very hard
ground the water-jet was brought
into requisition. There were, in fact,
two jets used with each pile — one to
the front, the other at the back. The
down-pipes were diminished in cross-
section at their lower ends.

It is undeniable that the employ-
ment of so great a quantity of steel-
sheeting for permanent construction
in this large English undertaking
means the beginning of a general
adoption of steel for sheet-piles by
British engineers. Perhaps it may
not be amiss to point out that this
style of sheeting seems to have the
disadvantage of an imperfect inter-
lock. It is possible to withdraw two
adjacent piles from each other by a
lateral movement. This same defect
attaches to the cast-iron sheeting
used in the Asyut and Zeifta barrages
in Egypt. That such an interlock
may become ineffective seems to be
pretty well disclosed by the bulging
taking place in both trial-bays. In
the first, the integrity of the steel
wall was entirely broken up, while in
the second a beginning of separation
was observable. The writer expresses
himself, of course, with some diffi-
dence ; but ventures, however, to
point out that, although it is quite
possible that the curtain-wall at the
Hodbarrow mines may now be intact
and may remain so, it would seem
just as well for engineers in the fu-
ture to make sure by using an inter-
lock that is effective in every direc-
tion except the vertical. This par-
ticular construction is now some five
or six years old, and has, apparently,
successfully been withstanding any
thrusts of the surrounding strata
tending to impair its continuity.

1 In the discussion following the reading of Mr.
Bidwell's paper on the Hodbarrow Mines, it was
stated that but one row of walings was used.
This seems to be in conflict with the text of the
paper itself.

An entirely different form of steel
sheeting, used in English construc-
tion going on at about the same time
as that at the Hodbarrow - Mines,
may be noticed. This sheet-pile was
decided upon because of the appa-
rent impossibility of driving wooden
sheeting for a portion of a coffer-
dam employed in construction of the
Tredger dry dock at Newport, Mon-
. mouth. In seeking to drive the inter-
mediate wooden sheets between the
main piles one hundred blows of a
ton-and-a-quarter-ram having a fall
of 6 feet were required to secure a
penetration of i inch. Success in
driving the steel forms was attained
not merely because of the strength
and stiffness, but because of the 8yy2
per cent, reduction in cross-sectional
area. _ This type of sheet-pile consists
of units formed by riveting together
a channel and an I-beam. A flat
plate was secured at the same time
to the inner face of the channel. The
channel thus formed a groove into
which the free flanges of the adja-
cent pile would be inserted. The
purpose of the flat plate was to pro-
vide a suitable contacting surface for
the next pile. It was feared that the
rounded corners in the channel would
otherwise make a proper contact diffi-
cult. This piling was, however, not
successful in effecting tight joints.
Indeed, it is rather difficult to see
how it could be so, no provision
having been made to seal them.
However, these piles seemed to drive
with ease. With the same ram a fall
of but 3 feet was used. It is stated
that continuous driving was eco-
nomical of power. If driving ceased
at night, the number of blows re-
quired, on resuming in the morning,
would be increased 50 per cent, to
accomplish equal penetration. Per-
haps attention should be directed to
the defect of an imperfect interlock,
shared by this pile with a number of
others.

(To be concluded.)

VANADIUM STEEL

By William E. Gibbs, B. So

IT is now eighty years ago that
Berzelius, in a letter to Dulong,
wrote as follows :
"M. Sefstrom, the Director of the
Fahlun School of Mines, while ex-
amining a piece of iron remarkable
for its extreme softness, observed the
presence in it of a substance which
differed in its properties from every
other known substance, but present in
such small quantity that much time
and expense would be necessary be-
fore a quantity could be obtained suf-
ficient for a thorough investigation.
The iron is obtained from an ore
found at Taberg in Smaland, which
also contains small traces of the sub-
stance mentioned. M. Sefstrom, hav-
ing observed that cast iron contains
a muqh greater proportion than the
wrought iron which is obtained from
it, assumed that the slag formed dur-
ing the conversion of the cast into
the wrought iron would be still richer.
This supposition has soon been con-
firmed by experiment, and M. Sef-
strom, having been able in this man-
ner to procure a quantity of the sub-
stance sufficient for investigation, has
come to me for the Christmas vaca-
tion to complete his researches on the
subject."

While Sefstrom's observations were
found to be correct in the broad
sense, yet subsequent detail observa-
tions have shown that a large portion
of the vanadium in the ore passes
into the slag of the blast furnace.
Subsequently a further great elimi-
nation takes place from the pig iron
when it is converted into steel in the
acid hearth; if the conversion takes
place in the basic hearth, then, of
course, practically all the vanadium
is eliminated from it.

174

Sefstrom completed his researches
and established the individuality of
the element and described many of its
compounds. He named it vanadium
in honour of the Scandinavian god-
dess Freya, or Vanadis.

At the beginning of the century,
Del Rio, a mineralogist in Mexico,
had discovered a new element in the
lead ores of Zimapan in Mexico. He
ascribed to it the name erythronium,
from the reddish colour of its com-
pounds when heated with acids. Del
Rio appeared to be somewhat uncer-
tain of his discovery, for in the fol-
lowing year he changed his mind and
expressed it as his opinion that the
ore was merely a basic chromate of
lead.

In 183 1, the year after Sefstrom's
discovery, it was shown by Wohler
that vanadium existed in the lead
ores of Zimapan.

A most thorough and complete in-
vestigation of the metal and its com-
pounds was commenced in 1867 by
Sir Henry Roscoe. The metal is very
hard and has an extremely high melt-
ing-point (above that of platinum).
It has a very great affinity for oxy-
gen and nitrogen.

Although vanadium has been em-
ployed successfully in ceramics and
in dyeing', yet its most important ap-
plication is to the manufacture of
"special" steels.

The large number of uses to which
steel is put, the variety of the condi-
tions . which it must fulfil, have
created a demand for special steels
suited to the particular requirements
of the engineer and the manufac-
turer. Steel which answers admira-
bly to the purposes of bridge-building
would be of little use in high-speed

VANADIUM STEEL

i75

tools or in the driving-rods of loco-
motives. During the last two decades
the requirements of engineers have
been increasingly exacting. Steels
that satisfied the requirements of
twenty years ago are quite unsuita-
ble to-day.

A marked change is noticeable in
the engineer's conception of the "use-
ful strength" of a steel. Formerly it
was the custom to gauge the quality
of a steel by the maximum load it
would stand before breaking and its
elongation under such a load.

Other qualities observed were (1)
the elastic limit, i. e., the stress it
would stand without sustaining per-
manent distortion, and (2) the con-
traction per cent, in the area of the
cross-section when broken under a
steady load. Of these four tests the
two last seem to be the most valua-
ble, and they are gradually supplant-
ing the two former ones in the con-
siderations of engineers. It does not
seem likely that a steel would be em-
ployed under a stress greater than
that required to permanently distort
it, i. e., the elastic limit ; also the
contraction in area of the cross-sec-
tion appears to be a better indication
of its static ductility than its elonga-
tion, or longitudinal flow. However,
the knowledge of its tensile strength,
its elongation, and also its behaviour
when bent cold sufficed for the re-
quirements of the engineer twenty
years ago.

But however able a steel may be to
withstand a steady load of considera-
ble magnitude, it does not necessarily
follow that it will behave well under
stresses suddenly applied, whether
large shocks or persistent vibratory
forces. It is well known that it is
possible to break a steel by the re-
peated application of forces far be-
low its elastic limit. A steel often
possesses both "static" and "dynamic"
strength, but this is not always the
case, and a steel with superior static
qualities will sometimes quickly de-
teriorate in service and ultimately
break down under heavy "duty."
Numerous instances of such deterio-

ration have been observed in connnec-
tion with the axles of automobiles,
etc., where increased static strength
has too often been accompanied by
inferior dynamic properties. This is
particularly the case with nickel
steels. Nickel greatly enhances the
static properties of steel, but dynami-
cally it is a veritable poison.

Since steels are so prone to de-
teriorate no clear conception of their
usefulness in service can be obtained
which does not include some knowl-
edge of their behaviour when sub-
jected to shock or vibration. There-
fore steels are now subjected to a
severe dynamic test as follows : A
bar of steel, of given dimensions, is
clamped at one end in a vice. Over
the other end is slipped a slotted arm
which is capable of rapid oscillation.
At each swing of the arm the bar is
bent backwards or forwards and, in
addition, is subjected to shock. The
number of alternating blows under a
given force of impact sustained be-
fore fracture ensues defines the dy-
namic quality of the steel. It is found
that the dynamic properties of steels
vary very much with the composition
and with the static properties. The
day is fast approaching when all en-
gineers will include such a dynamic
test in their quality figure. Mr. W.
L. Turner has proposed a quality
figure which embraces the three most
important characteristics of steel for
constructional purposes, viz. :

(1) The elastic limit, which repre-
sents the useful strength ;

(2) the contraction in area of the
cross-section, which is a measure of
the static ductility ;

(3) the dynamic figure, which
shows the ability to resist fatigue.
This can be defined quantitatively as

EXRXA

1 ,000,000
where E is the elastic limit in pounds
per square inch, R is the contraction
per cent, of the area of the cross-
section, A is the resistance to alter-
nating stresses under Turner's stand-
ard conditions.

176

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

It will thus be seen that for a steel
to have a thoroughly satisfactory
quality figure it must possess great
static strength and must be able to
withstand vibration.

These remarks apply more directly
to steel that is used for constructional
purposes ; but in steel that is used
for tools the quality of "hardness"
is most important. The hardness of
a steel depends upon ( 1 ) its composi-
tion, and (2) its heat treatment. In-
tense hardness such as is necessary
for iron turning was formerly ob-
tained by having a high percentage
of carbon in the steel. But when the
tool became well heated, as in high-
speed turning, then it lost its hard-
ness, and mainly because it contained
so much carbon. Here the metallur-
gist has invoked the aid of the micro-
scope and the pyrometer, and by their
means he has been able to under-
stand this softening and, in a meas-
ure, to prevent it.

The loss of hardness in high-speed
tool steels is due to a rearrangement
among the particles of the carbon in
the steel. The carbon in the steel is
combined with some of the iron in
the form of carbide of iron, which is
distributed in lumps throughout the
remaining mass of carbonless iron.
On heating the steel to a certain point
the carbide "areas" break up and the
carbide is disseminated throughout
the iron in the form of a solid solu-
tion. Gradual cooling of the steel
brings about the reformation of the
carbide "areas." Sudden quenching,
however, prevents the dissolved car-
bide from segregating, but produces
an intensely hard, solid solution of
the carbide in iron, known as marten-
site. The hardness of steel is the
direct result of the presence of this
constituent. In service such a steel
used as a high-speed tool would, on
becoming highly heated, undergo this
internal rearrangement, involving the
decomposition of the martensite and
the consequent loss of hardness. It
is with the object of preventing the
decomposition of this hard constituent
at the working temperature that

special high-speed tool steels are
manufactured. They are alloy steels
and may contain tungsten, molybde-
num, chromium and vanadium.

Apart from their effect upon the
hardness of the metal, the segregated
carbides are a source of weakness.
The different coefficients of expan-
sion of the carbides and the iron
cause slight — microscopically small —
cracks at the boundaries of the car-
bide crystals. These constitute little
rifts, which under stress, whether
static or dynamic, will slowly widen
and result in ultimate disaster.

While annealing is employed to
break up the carbide areas, and to
distribute the carbide throughout the
iron, it also serves to relieve the in-
ternal stresses produced by the work
which has been put upon the metal.
Another important source of weak-
ness is the presence in the steel of
dissolved gases, oxygen and nitrogen.
They make the steel very brittle.

In 1900 Professor Arnold, of Shef-
field, carried out a thorough investi-
gation of the effects of vanadium
upon the properties of iron and steel.
The vanadium was added to the steel
in the form of ferro-vanadium, an
alloy of iron and vanadium, contain-
ing in this case a small percentage of
aluminium. Systematic tests were
carried out and the properties of the
vanadium steels were closely studied.
To illustrate the general effect of
vanadium upon iron and steel I quote
the following figures :

INFLUENCE OF VANADIUM UPON
SWEDISH IRON.

Contract.

Vanad..
Specification Per Cent.
Swed. bar iron.. 0.00
Swed. vanadium. 0.85

Elast. Lim., in Area,
Pounds Per Cent.
26,800 50

45.120 72

Here we have a very marked im-
provement in the static properties of
the iron. The elastic limit is equal to
that of a mild steel, while the duc-
tility, as represented by the contrac-
tion in area, is even greater.

But the effect of vanadium upon
iron, although very marked, is not so
great as its effect upon steel, as the
following facts will indicate :

VANADIUM STEEL

177

INFLUENCE OF VANADIUM ON

CARBON

STEEL

Contract.

Vanad.,

Elast. Lim.

in Area,

Specification Per Cent.

Pounds

Per Cent.

1.1 carb. steel. 0.00

67,000

7.0

" 0.14

96,120

6.9

0.29

99,320

10.0

0.58

144,800

7.6

0.77

131,300

9.3

1.11

120,600

17.6

It is evident that the addition of
vanadium greatly enhances the static
strength of the steel and that the ef-
fect is proportional to the amount of
vanadium added up to a certain limit.
About 0.6 per cent, is the maximum
amount of vanadium to be added to a
steel such as the above. There is
nothing to be gained by adding more
than this quantity. The increase of
useful strength is not accompanied by
any decrease in the ductility of the
metal — if anything this is slightly in-
creased.

With regard to steel castings the
following comparison is very instruc-
tive :

Elastic Lim.,
Steel Pounds

Ordinary 36,300

Vanadium 45,620

The test-pieces were taken from cast-
steel locomotive frames. The greatly

No. of

Elongation,

Alternat

Per Cent.

Shocks

4,206

12,776

increased dynamic figure is very note-
worthy.

So much, then, for the influence of
vanadium upon ordinary carbon steel.
But it is upon the properties of other
"alloy" steels that vanadium exerts
its greatest influence, and in this field
of work it produces the most remark-
able results. It appears to intensify
the static effect of any particular in-
gredient, such as nickel or chromium,
while in addition to this it toughens
the steel and improves its dynamic
quality. A comparison of the more
important properties of several alloy
steels with the various vanadium al-
loy steels will indicate the greatly
superior qualities of the steels which
contain vanadium :

Elastic Lim.,

Steel Pounds

Carb. axle 41,330

Nick, axle 49,270

Vanad. axle 63,570

" crankshaft. 110,100

" gear 224,000

In addition to these the following
figures are interesting in that they
show the effect of vanadium upon al-
loy steels, such as nickel and chro-
mium steels.

Contract.

No. of

of Area,

Alternat

Per Cent.

Shocks

960

800

2,700

1,850

800

INFLUENCE OF VANADIUM UPON VARIOUS ALLOY-STEELS.

Steel *C

Nickel forging 0.21

Cr-V forging 0.26

Carbon spring 1.00

Cr-V spring 0.40

Cr-V-Ni 0.30

Ni-V 0.24

Cr-V-Ni 0.57

Carbon casting 0.18

Vanad. casting 0.19

Carbon spring 1.00

Cr-V spring 0.40

Cr-V forge 0.30

Cr-V-Ni 0.30

Mn
0.45
0.50
0.30
0.77
0.27
0.72
0.27
0.65
0.60
0.30
0.77
0.50
0.27

-Chemical Analysis-
Cr

i'.oo

1.22
1.51

0.93

Ni
3.70

3.45
3.40
2.04

1.22
1.00
1.51

3.45

-Static-

Dynamic

Quality
E

0.16

b.ii)

0.085

0.15

0.07

0.76

0.19
0.16

0.085

of Figure
X R X A

Nickel forging 61,140

Cr-V forging 61,920

Carbon spring 63,800

Cr-V spring 67,520

Cr-V-Ni 69,140

Ni-V 79,260

Cr-V-Ni 95,150

Carbon casting 34,690

Vanad. casting 44,340

Carbon spring 101,000

Cr-V spring 183,400

Cr-V forge 141,600

Cr-V-Ni 152,300

Elast. Limit (E) Red'n of Area (R)

Lbs. Per Sq. In. Per Cent. No. Altern. Stresses (A)

62.5
57.3
15.2
61.7
68.5
64.0
49.8
44.9
44.9
16.1
50.6
56.2
58.9

746

1,608

1,260

1,406

507

798

983

269

850

561

634

717

487

1,000,000

2,851

5,706

1,222

5,858

2,402

4,048

4,659

, 419

' 1,671

912

5,883

5,705

4,369

* Carbon is represented by C; nickel, Ni; chromium, Cr; manganese, Mn; vanadium, V.

Samples one to nine were annealed. The remainder were oil-tempered at 900° C. and reheated to
550° C. ,. .......

It is very evident from these figures that the vanadium steels possess very superior qualities, as indi-
cated by the quality figure.

2-6

i78

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Samples (i) to (9.) were an-
nealed. The remainder were oil-
tempered at 900 ° C. and reheated to
55o° C.

It is very evident from these fig-
ures that the vanadium steels possess
very superior qualities as indicated by
the quality figure.

The special steels containing nickel,
chromium or tungsten have now been
in use for some years and have been
well suited to many requirements.
But where they have produced in-
creased static strength they have
caused a decrease in the dynamic
quality of the material. It is by the
application of vanadium to such steels
that success has been accomplished
and a steel obtained satisfactory both
statically and dynamically. Vana-
dium steels have now been in use for
ten years and have been subjected to
severe tests. They have well justi-
fied all that was predicted of them.

The automobile industry, more than
any other, has compelled the steel
manufacturer to institute improve-
ments in the quality of steel. The
"requirements of modern automobile
construction are most drastic, and
steels which prove satisfactory in
service in the axles or springs of
motor cars can be safely reckoned
upon to stand almost anything.

Two practical examples of the su-
perior strength and wearing qualities
of vanadium steels were given in
1907, in a lecture on the application
of vanadium steels to the construc-
tion of automobiles, by Mr. J. Kent
Smith, the pioneer in the manufac-
ture of vanadium steels and the high-
lest authority upon vanadium alloys.
He said:

"One automobile manufacturer could
not get a steel to stand certain work,
and the trouble was diagnosed by
the author as a question entirely of
alternating impact. In March, 1904,
this manufacturer was given six
vanadium steel axles of a type best
fitted to resist such conditions, the
understanding being that they were
to be put on trial cars and punished
severely, so as to form a fairly quick

opinion of the nature of the steel.
This manufacturer was of the opin-
ion they would break, as the tensile
strength, elongation and reduction of
area were practically similar to those
in the steel he was unsuccessfully
using. The vanadium steel chosen
succeeded triumphantly, and that man
has never built a car since with any
other kind of axle steel. Another
illustration is that of a friend who
desired shafts for a launch to trans-
mit 80 horsepower at 1,200 revolu-
tions a minute through 17 feet 6
inches. Carefully checked designs of
these shafts in vanadium steel, show-
ing an ample factor of safety, only
came out at 1% inch diameter, and
despite most pessimistic remarks from
"practical" men these shafts behaved
perfectly under the most exigent
trials. The boat in which they were
used won the race (I do not say be-
cause the shafts were made of vana-
dium steel), and the builder stated
he was designing a lot more launches
and had specified vanadium steel for
all. The steel he had been using
before had higher static ultimate
strength, good ductility and was ap-
parently first-class steel ; he was using
a bigger shaft and yet he had been
getting breakages."

These two instances are typical of
dozens.

The best steel for moving machin-
ery parts is chrome vanadium steel,
and to this steel in particular is ap-
plied the name "anti-fatigue steel."
Let us consider a sample of the open-
hearth chrome vanadium steel of the
type used for springs.

The annealed bar can be knotted
cold, showing its extreme ductility ;
a sharpened end on quenching in
water from 9000 C. is sufficiently
hardened to scratch glass. It would
be difficult to equal such a combina-
tion of hardness and softness in one
material.

When a steel is tempered its dy-
namic resistance beyond the elastic
limit is, of course, diminished. A
piece of the best carbon spring steel,
made in the crucible, was taken, one

VANADIUM STEEL

179

piece of it annealed, another tem-
pered. A piece of vanadium spring
steel was taken and tempered as for
a spring; and it was found that the
tempered vanadium steel was dynam-
ically superior to the annealed car-
bon steel. They were subjected to
the alternating stress test. The free
length of the test piece was 4 inches,
the section Y§ inch square, and it was
given a permanent deflection of J4
inch each side at every vibration.
Let us compare the number of vibra-
tions necessary to break the samples :
(1) Carbon steel tempered, 40 vibra-
tions; (2) carbon steel annealed, 250
vibrations; (3) vanadium steel tem-
pered, 350-400 vibrations ; (4) vana-
dium steel annealed, 500 vibrations.
These figures speak for themselves.

This excellent dynamic character
renders vanadium steels peculiarly
suitable for springs. A carbon steel
locomotive spring was compared with
a vanadium steel locomotive spring
with the following remarkable re-
sults : The carbon steel spring under
a fibre stress of 90,000 ponuds per
square inch broke before reaching
10,000 compressions. The vanadium
steel spring under a fibre stress of
110,000 pounds per square inch with-
stood 23,620 compressions without
losing its camber.

Not only are vanadium steels su-
perior in their dynamic properties,
but where very good static strength
is required, and where the steel will
be free from shocks and vibration in
service, then vanadium can produce
a steel which will be hard to equal.
Thus a type of open-hearth vanadium
steel tempered in the ordinary shop
gave an elastic limit of 224,000
pounds per square ineh, with a re-
duction of area of 39 per cent. This
steel might not be suitable for some
crankshafts or driving axles because
of insufficient dynamic quality, but
a vanadium steel of lower static
strength would meet all the static re-
quirements in such a case and would
possess a higher dynamic figure.

Vanadium steels are also eminently
suitable for high-speed tools. The

hardness of a vanadium steel in-
creases with the rise of temperature,
hence the cutting efficiency of a vana-
dium steel tool has been found to be
as much as seventeen times that of
an ordinary high-speed tool. As a
matter of history, at the Paris Ex-
position of 1900 a planing machine
was exhibited in which the tool, made
of vanadium steel, was becoming red
hot on account of its high tempera-
ture and yet without losing any of its
properties.

Vanadium steels are good to work,
a vanadium-chrome steel machining
almost like a carbon steel. A vana-
dium-chrome steel crankshaft is a lit-
tle stiffer to machine than an ordinary
carbon steel crankshaft, but it is cer-
tainly no more difficult to machine
than the ordinary nickel steel crank-
shaft and nothing like as difficult as
the nickel-chrome steel crankshaft.

It is suggested that the actual ef-
fect of vanadium upon steels is at
least threefold :

(1) It dissolves in the carbonless
portion of the iron, which it tough-
ens and renders more impermeable to
the carbide. Thus it does much to
prevent the segregation of the car-
bide.

(2) It removes oxides and nitrides
and dissolved gases, by virtue of its
powerful attraction for these gases
at high temperatures. The removal
of these poisonous constituents is at-
tended by an increase in the tough-
ness of the metal.

(3) It forms complex carbides
with the other carbide-forming ele-
ments which may be present, such as
chromium of nickel. These complex
carbides enhance considerably the
static strength of the steel. They
add much more strength when they
contain nickel or chromium.

We have seen that vanadium is a
very refractory metal. It is mani-
festly impossible to add it to steel
directly, its fusing-point being sev-
eral hundred degrees above that of
steel. But an alloy of vanadium and
iron in the proportion of 1 to 2 has
a fusing-point below 1,400° C, i. e.,

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

much below that of steel. It is in
the form of this alloy (ferro- vana-
dium) that the vanadium is added to
the steel. The alloy is improved by
the presence in it of silicon and alu-
minium within certain limits; The
best alloy for all practical purposes
is one containing 60 per cent, iron, 30
per cent, vanadium, 7 per cent, silicon
and 3 per cent, aluminium. The alloy
must not contain vanadium carbide,
and it is probably because electrically
manufactured alloy nearly always
contains this carbide that it is un-
satisfactory so far as the obtaining
of regular results goes.

The addition of the vanadium alloy
to the metal is a point of practical
importance. We have seen that vana-
dium has a great affinity for oxygen ;
it forms an acidic oxide. Therefore
it must not be added under oxidizing
conditions, and if the steel contains
much oxygen or oxides a large part
of the vanadium will be lost in re-
moving this oxygen.

With steels made on the acid-
hearth the vanadium alloy is added
a few minutes before tapping, care
being taken that the slag is neutral
and that the steel is as free from
oxygen as possible. The alloy is
added in lumps previously heated,
and the steel is well "rabbled" and
then poured.

In the basic open-hearth process
the steel is poured slowly into the
ladle and the ferro - vanadium is
added simultaneously, care being
taken to complete the addition before
any slag appears.

Similarly with Bessemer and Tro-
penas steel, the addition is made in
the ladle.

In the case of crucible steel the
ferro-vanadium is added to the mol-
ten metal about twenty minutes be-
fore pouring.

Any "loss" of vanadium during the
addition is due to that portion which
combines with the oxygen and nitro-
gen and passes into the slag. It is
imperative, therefore, to deoxidize as
much as ' possible with the cheaper
agent, manganese, before commenc-

ing the addition of the ferro-vana-
dium.

Until quite recently vanadium was
regarded as a "rare" element, and the
supply of the metal seemed to be
very precarious. The first really big
impetus to commercial vanadium was
given by the opening up of large de-
posits of vanadium ore in South
America by the American Vanadium
Company. In addition to this the In-
ternational Vanadium Company, Ltd.,
possesses deposits of raw material of
at least equal importance in Western
America and in Europe. These de-
posits are, if anything, more prolific
in quantity than those of the Ameri-
can Vanadium Company and they are
in a still more accessible country. It
is obvious, therefore, that there is no
chance of any shortage in the supply
of commercial vanadium alloy, how-
ever much the application of vana-
dium to the general steel trade grows.
During the last year works have been
erected at Garston, near Liverpool,
by the International Vanadium Com-
pany. They are for the production
of ferro-vanadium, cupro-vanadium,
and vanadium alloys in general. In
addition to these two companies there
is the General Vanadium Company of
America.

The discovery of easily worked
sources of vanadium, coupled with
the commercial demand for the metal,
has resulted in an astonishingly
rapid cheapening of the price. Twen-
ty years ago vanadium was £90 per
pound. In ten years the price fell to
£3 per pound. To-day its market
price is 22 shillings per pound. It is
this fact, together with the necessity
for adding it to steel in very small
quantities (generally less than 0.2
per cent, of the weight of the steel),
that enables the manufacturer to
make vanadium steels at a price
roughly comparable with that of or-
dinary nickel forging steel. Taking
into consideration its superior quali-
ties it is without doubt the most use-
ful steel on the market.

Vanadium, like aluminium, osmium
and tantalum, is an instance of the

VANADIUM STEEL

I»I

immense potentialities of undeveloped
nature. It is by means of the ele-
ments of rare occurrence and seem-
ingly of only academic interest that
great steps are made along the road
of progress. Vanadium has been well
called the "Master Weapon of the
Metallurgist," and in the hands of
such master metallurgists as Profes-
sor Arnold, Mr. J. E. Stead and Mr.
J. Kent Smith it has proved a verita-
ble "Excalibur." Not yet has it been
signally defeated, although it has
been employed for over ten years,
and during that time it has been sub-
jected to the most drastic tests that
could be devised.

Its usefulness is not confined to
iron and steel, but it also strength-
ens and enhances the properties of
brasses, bronzes, copper, aluminium
and even lead. The full extent of
its usefulness, however, is as yet
quite unknown. There are an in-
numerable variety of questions con-
cerning its applications in other
branches of metallurgy which await
investigation by the scientific metal-
lurgist. We have seen what has al-
ready been accomplished, and it is
such knowledge that is the best in-
dication of what we may expect in
the future from this valuable auxiliary
in the improvement of steel.

CITY TRANSPORTATION

By Frank Foster, M. Sc.

MOST towns have existing trans-
portation systems which, by
reason of the capital sunk in
them and the difficulties of a transi-
tional period, cannot always be altered
even to effect an obvious improve-
ment. The writer is fully sensible of
this great and frequently insuper-
able practical difficulty in the way
of transportation improvement, but
thinks that it may, nevertheless, be
profitable to elucidate a few general
principles which should be kept con-
stantly in mind by those having to
deal with city transportation.

A large town is to-day impossible
without extended transport facilities,
and it is perfectly certain that the
growth of the town is in no small
degree influenced by the efficiency
of the local transportation systems.
Especially is this true of business as
distinct from purely manufacturing
towns, although it is also true of the
latter. The tendency for business
firms is to concentrate into the large
towns and into one small central dis-
trict of the large towns. The eco-
nomic advantages of such a gather-
ing and concentration of business in-
terests are considerable. But in eco-
nomics distance is measured by time,
and not by miles. Two towns which
are equally accessible from a third
are, from an economic point of view,
equally distant from it, though in
point of fact one may be ten miles
and the other thirty.

The statement that economic dis-
tances are measured by time requires
some amplification, and, perhaps,
modification. As regards the "time"
distance between two towns, fre-
quency of service must be taken into

182

account. In the case of towns, or
other stopping places, which are
close together, frequency of service
is of the greatest moment, and may
often reverse the apparent distances
as calculated from a consideration of
the running times alone. For in-
stance, if A is distant 10 and 15 min-
utes on the car from B and C, re-
spectively, it would seem at first sight
that, economically, B must be nearer
A than C. Suppose, however, that
there is a twenty-minutes' service to
B and a four-minutes' service to C.
Then, clearly, the average gross time
it takes a person to go from A to B
is twenty minutes (running time plus
half the interval between cars), and
from A to B is only seventeen min-
utes, so that, economically, C is
nearer than B to A. There is a
modifying factor, however, which
should be noticed. When the service
is fairly frequent people do not
trouble, about a time table, but merely
wait until the first car comes along.
In this case the average gross time,
as calculated above, is a true measure
of the economic distance. On the
other hand, when the frequency is
low, travelers make use of time ta-
bles and fill in time which would
otherwise be spent in waiting by some
useful occupation. Hence, the longer
the time interval between cars or
trains the more nearly does the
actual running time approach to the
economic time. In such cases the
particular times at which cars arrive
and depart becomes of importance
and affects the economic distance.

The modifying influence to which
reference has been made is that of
cost. It is not possible to express this

CITY TRANSPORTATION

183

in mathematical form, and hence its
estimation demands the more thought-
ful and skilled consideration, for in
practice the influence of cost has to
be taken into account. Either it must
be estimated in the most careful and
skillful manner possible, or it must
be settled by sheer guesswork ; and
it hardly needs emphasizing which is
the better method, although it is
quite certain that the guesswork
method is the favourite with a great
many transportation managers.

Perhaps there is no town in the
world which exhibits with greater
certainty the influence of local trans-
port upon a city's growth than New
York. Every successive improve-
ment in transportation has proved but
a temporary relief to the congestion
of the cars, showing emphatically that
the economic growth of the city was
being held in check by the inability
of the transportalion systems to weld
into one industrial community as
many people as business considera-
tions made desirable. First, the
street cars were reinforced by the
overhead street railway. Then elec-
trification effected a temporary relief,
but the construction of the four-
track subway soon became a neces-
sity. Similarly, the traffic between
New York and Brooklyn outgrew
the by no means small capacity of
the famous Brooklyn Bridge, and it
was necessary to build successively
within recent years the Williamsburg
Bridge, the Blacicwell's Island Bridge
(opened this year), and the Manhat-
tan Bridge, which is not yet finished.
In addition, there has recently been
completed one tunnel, and another is
m progress ; added to which mention
must be made of the ferries.

Whilst the most perfect local
transportation will not create a large
population if other essential business
conditions are absent, it is yet
necessary to emphasize how greatly
a growing community is dependent
upon its transport; and it is the busi-
ness of the transportation manager to
give the city the best service possi-
ble, with a view to extending the

business or manufactures of the dis-
trict and, incidentally, adding to the
traffic receipts and profits.

In order to create traffic the most
important objective is to reduce the
economic distances ; and, as we have
seen, the three most important ele-
ments in this are speed of traveling,
frequency of service, and cost. In
view of the experience of the Lon-
don underground services, it is wise,
perhaps, to also mention comfort as
a traffic creator, although London in
the mass has been so long without
decently comfortable trains or 'buses
that the people have come to look
upon discomfort as a necessary part
of a local journey.

It would be a good thing if our
tramway managers paid more atten-
tion to the economic geography of
their districts, as there is a marked
lack of discrimination and initiative
in tramway policy. Let us consider
a typical business town, simplified to
permit simple and plain statements,
but still in its essentials representa-
tive of actual conditions.

In the centre of the town there is
an area devoted mainly to business,
and this is surrounded by a deep
fringe of residential district, which,
again, has on the outside — sometimes
connected, sometimes separated by
half a mile or a mile of fields — a
number of suburban districts. All
these want connecting up by a trans-
portation system. The most impor-
tant demand is for a reduction of the
economic distance between the busi-
ness quarter or centre and the outer
districts. This involves a cheap serv-
ice, a frequent service, and a fast
service. This last is not appreciated
either by officials or passengers.
There is still in most people's minds
a deep-rooted idea that a tram, be-
cause it runs in the streets, must not
greatly exceed the other traffic in
point of speed. And, too, passengers
have a belief that they have an un-
doubted right to stop a car wherever
they please. The greatest of tram-
way reforms — and it is bound to
come — will involve the abolition of

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

these two ideas. Much higher aver-
age speeds than are at present in use
must be attained; and these involve
higher running speeds, more rapid
acceleration, fewer stops, and shorter
stops. Also, tramway engineers will
do well to pay more attention to the
tram routes, so as to avoid curves
(and particularly corners), points,
and crossings.

In order to reduce the number of
stops, express cars are required, which
will stop, as at present, near both
ends of the journey, but not at in-
termediate points. This involves
passing loops for the local cars to
stand on, or a special express track.
The latter is preferable, if there is
sufficient traffic. In some cases in
America the express track is a sin-
gle line, and cars only run in one
direction upon it at any given period
of the day, the direction depending
upon the direction of the natural flow
of traffic — to town in the morning
and from town in the evening. Ex-
press cars, it may be mentioned, in
spite of their higher average speeds,
take much less current than stopping
cars.

For commercial and social reasons
traffic managers should strive to re-
duce the residential belt which presses
closely round the business quarter.
The congestion in this district is the
cause of slums. The slum is a so-
cial evil, and even from the tramway
point of view it is an evil because its
inhabitants have neither need nor the
means to ride. Also, by making the
residential quarter more compact, it
discourages riding among the work-
ing classes who can afford to ride.
Hence it is desirable to reduce the
first residential belt. To do this it
is essential that the economic distance
between the suburbs and the town
should be reduced. Speeds must be
greatly increased and fares reduced.
Both are possible with express cars,
but the tramway manager must be
prepared, if necessary, to sacrifice his
short-distance passenger. The passen-
ger who lives within the first resi-
dential belt must be distinctly dis-

couraged in his attempts to reach
town and encouraged in his attempts
to fly from it.

This cannot be accomplished by
appeals to health considerations. The
only effective instrument is economic.
For instance, suppose that in our
large town the fare is put at three
halfpence to the outskirts and two-
pence to the outlying suburbs. There
will certainly be a demand for a
penny fare to the first residential
belt, or, perhaps, even for a half-
penny fare. This should not be
granted. The least fare to any resi-
dential district should be that to the
outskirts, so that there is no eco-
nomic pressure tending to encourage
residence in the inner residential belt.
Generally, it will be possible to carry
passengers to the outskirts for a
penny fare; but if not, the penny
fare should be abolished and, of
course, the halfpenny fare, too.

This statement needs verbal modi-
fication, although not in principle.
Penny, and even halfpenny fares,
may legitimately be adopted on routes
such as are referred to above, pro-
vided they do not connect home and
the business quarter. But a series
of cheap fares within the business
quarter itself and another similar
series in the residential quarter, but
the two systems not connecting with
each other, are most desirable. To
fix our ideas, suppose that the run
of the car from town is made up as
follows: Three-quarters of a mile
of business section, one mile of dense
residential belt, one mile of outskirts,
and one mile of country suburb. The
fares are fixed at twopence to the
suburb and three half-pence to any
point nearer town. The cars will be
only partly filled at both ends of the
journey. Hence, it will pay to in-
stitute a series of halfpenny or penny
fares covering the three-quarters of
a mile of business section and the
outer two miles of the outskirts and
suburb. Such fares would prove a
real boon to business people at the
one end and to residents at the other.
At the same time, they would not in

CITY TRANSPORTATION

185

any way encourage thrifty or poor
people to herd ciose in to the town.
The influence of time is potent
enough in this direction without add-
ing economic pressure to intensify the
evil.

With regard to the position of sub-
urban tram routes, these should not
be too close together. They should
be kept so far apart that there is a
tendency- — a visible tendency — for va-
cant land and fields to be left be-
tween the tram routes, as this
preserves the social and sanitary
standard of the district- and encour-
ages the town to grow in the form
of a starfish, rather than to cover up
the whole ground, which is a thing
to be prevented. Although the main
tram routes will connect the out-
skirts to the centre, there is usually
a profitable opening for cross-town
or intersuburban routes.

Turning now to the business
quarter of the town, we generally
find an altogether inadequate appre-
ciation of the value and possibilities
of transportation facilities. We have
already pointed out that a series of
cheap fares within the business area
would prove a real boon, but they
are never adopted. Further, tram-
way managers have become possessed
with the false idea that all services
should start from some one common
place, so as to interconnect.

This idea is probably borrowed
from the railways, but it is a mis-
taken one. The number of passen-
gers who desire to make train con-
nections is only a very small propor-
tion of the total, and hence their
needs are only of secondary impor-
tance. Further, most of them are
unencumbered, and can easily walk
some little distance, if necessary,
although it should be avoided if pos-
sible. But the tram which starts
from a common central square or
depot necessarily only traverses half
the business section, and is, therefore,
a defective carrier. In the first place,
it does not link jp the opposite parts
of the business quarter, and, in the
second place, it does not carry its

passengers as near, on the average,
to iheir destinations as it might.

In fact, it may be taken as a gen-
eral principle that a car should start
from near the far side of the busi-
ness quarter and traverse the full
width. It should, if possible, pass
through a central square, in common
with all other cars ; but it should not
start from that square.

It has frequently been proposed
that cheap contract tickets, available
for more or less prolonged periods,
should be issued on tramways be-
tween certain definite points. In the
sense in which these are intended —
as an imitation of the railway con-
tract-ticket— they are quite unjusti-
fiable on any ground. In the ma-
jority of cases the contract would not
create traffic ; it would only cheapen
traveling. Now, in the majority of
cases tramwavs cannot afford to
cheapen traveling unless they at the
same time increase the traffic. We
have already indicated the way to in-
crease the traffic — by discouraging the
inner residential belt. Contracts are
intended to encourage the regular
traveler. On the railways this is pos-
sible because, as a rule, the passenger
has the option of living close in and
refraining from using the railways
or of moving out, in which case he
must use them. Hence, the railway
must either give him sufficient in-
ducement to live out or lose him alto-
gether. On the tramway the case is
different. In the majority of cases
the man has no option, practically
speaking. He must ride, and it is
merely a question of distance. It is,
as we have seen, a paying policy to
discourage the inner residential belt
and encourage a reasonable suburban
tendency ; but it is not possible to
carry this very far, for as long as
there is an appreciable amount of
unoccupied land near the centre of
the town the people will refuse to go
further out. Hence, there is no
sense in carrying a man who goes
regularly at a less rate than the oc-
casional passenger. It does not in-
crease the traffic. Consequently, the

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

working expenses are not reduced.
Indeed, so far from encouraging
the regular traveler, the tramway
management should endeavor to en-
courage the occasional traveler, be-
cause he or she, in all probability,
will travel in between the rush hours
when the cars are more or less
empty and not earning their ex-
penses. In fact, if the system could
be practically arranged cheap fares
should be adopted for the non-rush
hours. The tramway of a city sys-
tem and the railway connecting the
more remote districts are economic-
ally distinct. The one has a fairly
fixed regular traffic, which taxes its
resources at certain periods only and
leaves certain blanks badly in need

of filling up, whilst the latter sys-
tem has to make its regular traffic
by offering inducements. It is true
the railway desires to fill in its non-
rush blanks as fully as possible, but
the railway is there primarily to at-
tract the contract-ticket holder. The
railway performs a service for a pri-
vate individual, but the tramway ap-
proximates to performing a public
service rendered necessary by the eco-
nomic or business needs of the com-
munity as a whole. Hence, the
tramway must charge alike to all of
the public who seek to use it at any
time. There must be no distinction
between individuals. Any distinction
must depend only on time or local
geography.

(Ktaretil topics

THE administration of govern-
ment is becoming more and
more a scientific operation.
The welfare of the citizens depends
upon the maintenance of order, the
preservation of peace, and the oppor-
tunity of pursuing the occupations
upon which comfort and prosperity
depend. The responsibility of the
ruler thus becomes increasingly im-
portant, and in no case has this bur-
den of responsibility been more fully
accepted and thoroughly borne than
in the case of the King who has just
gone to his rest. The title of Ed-
ward the "Peacemaker" far outweighs
all the appendages of "conqueror,"
"victorious," "bold," or even "great,"
which have, by common consent,
been bestowed upon monarchs of
other times ; it means an acceptance
of the truth that the "true grandeur
of nations" lies, not in military su-
premacy, but in the wise control of
conditions rendering destructive war-

fare unnecessary, and assuring well-
earned supremacy by the maintenance
of peace.

The great poet of the English-
speaking race has voiced the respon-
sibility of the monarch in the words
of Henry the Fifth, who, in realizing
the burden of his high office, is made
to speak the memorable words :

"Upon the King! Let us our lives,

our souls,
Our debts, our careful wives,
Our children and our sins, lay on

the King;
We must bear all.
O hard condition! twin-born with

greatness,
Subject to the breath of every fool,

whose sense
No more can feel, but his own

wringing !
What infinite heart's-ease must

kings neglect,
That private men enjoy?"

187

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CASSIERS' MAGAZINE

WITH the increasing cost of all
kinds of industrial opera-
tions it is becoming evident
that the success of most manufac-
turing establishments must depend
upon the development of maximum
efficiency, which means that all wastes
must be reduced and all unnecessary
expenditures eliminated. It is not
difficult to cut out losses when their
causes are well known, and thus the
principal effort must be directed to-
ward the detection of the leaks and
the places at which they can be
stopped.

When the skilful physician is called
in to treat a case of which he has
had no previous knowledge his first
effort is to make a diagnosis and en-
deavour to discover symptoms which
shall guide him in determining the
causes of which they are the effects.
In like manner the engineer who is
attempting to convert losses into
profits, and to reduce wastes, both
with men and machines, must find
out where the things which cost
money are escaping without render-
ing due return ; he, too, must make
his diagnosis, and be guided by symp-
toms in the effort to discover just
where the unprofitable outlets are
situated.

The symptoms of losses in en-
gineering problems may be discovered
largely by a proper realization of the
law of conservation of energy. Every
manifestation of any one of the
physical forces, so-called, means an
expenditure of energy. Some of
these manifestations are desired and
capable of utilization ; others are, at
present, not utilized, and the energy
to which they owe their existence
is therefore wasted. Among these
symptoms of unused energy, in many
instances, we may include heat, noise,
vibration, and, in general, unneces-
sary movements.

It is well known that rejected heat,
that is, heat which has been gen-
erated at much cost of effort and
money, and which is discharged un-
used, is a distinct evidence of waste ;
it is so well known that nearly every

one looks upon it as an indication of
the place to make a saving. To this
realization we owe nearly all the ef-
forts to introduce condensers, super-
heaters, exhaust-heating devices, and
similar appliances. Such efforts have
been among the most effective in the
increase in efficiency of prime movers,
and their continued application will
doubtless reduce the losses in heat
motors still further.

Of the other indications of waste,
however, we can say hardly so much.
There is probably no clearer symp-
tom of wasted energy than the pro-
duction of noise. The surest indica-
tion of this fact appears when it is
desired to produce a loud and pene-
trating sound, such as is demanded
for signals of warning along the
coast, including the various forms of
so-called sirens and similar appliances.
To make a sound of this sort requires
far more power than would be ordi-
narily supposed, while for a similar
purpose, the sounding of a steam
fog-horn, the quantity of steam de-
manded is much greater than is gen-
erally assumed. When, therefore, any
mechanical operation is accompanied
by much noise, it may be accepted as
a definite symptom that there is an
accompanying waste of power, and
that if the noise can be prevented, not
smothered, as in a muffler, there will
be a notable gain in efficiency.

In like manner the production of
injurious vibrations indicates the ex-
penditure of wasted energy,while the
generation of heat, as in warm bear-
ings, heating of electrical machinery,
etc., is a sure demonstration of the
conversion of a portion of the effort
for which the owner is paying money
into a product from which he can
realize only injury.

Sometimes the symptom of loss is
a visual one, and while the object
seen may not in itself be the direct
result of wasted energy, it is a guide
to its location and probable extent.
Thus, the volumes of smoke emitted
from the factory chimney, or the
white clouds of exhaust steam float-
ing away in the sky, show clearly the

CURRENT TOPICS

189

path which useless energy is taking
in wending away from the owner's
pocket, and point out with equal
clearness the direction to which cura-
tive effort should be directed. The
smoky, noisy automobile proclaims in
unmistakable language where the
wasted value in the fuel is going ;
while the pounding of the flat car-
wheel tells in loud terms of the ex-
tent to which power, which should be
used in propulsion, is engaged in
working injury to track and vehicle
alike.

The writer was once told by a vet-
eran engineer of the importance of
"looking with the ears" when in
search of a defective piece of mech-
anism ; of listening for sounds which
coincided with ocular observation as
to rhythm of movement, to discover
the warm bearing and the noisy loose
pulley, and there is much truth in
the homely observation.

No demonstration of any one of
the forces of Nature, of heat, sound,
light, or electricty, can be produced
without a corresponding consumption
of mechanical energy, and when any
of these manifestations, undesired
and unused, is produced, somebody
is paying for it, probably in far
larger measure than he suspects.

IF a steam boiler is fed with acid
water it is rare to find within it
any scale. Such water requires
neutralizing or it will neutralize itself
at the expense of the boiler. The
amount of soda requisite for neutral-
izing the acid is easily ascertained by
adding soda in carefully weighed
quantities to a definite weight of
water until the test with phenolphtha-
lein shows that alkalinity has been
produced, the test liquid producing a
pink coloration, the fainter the better,
since a deep colour shows excess of
alkali. But why use expensive soda?
Lime is also an alkali which will de-
stroy acid in water. If the acid be
sulphuric it will convert the lime into
sulphate of lime, and it will also con-
vert limestone or chalk into lime sul-
phate. Hydrochloric acid will attack

the lime of lime carbonate and set
free the carbonic acid or it will con-
vert quicklime into chloride and ren-
der the water neutral.

If soda is employed and the amount
is found as above, sufficient may be
mixed in a tank for each day's use
and set to dribble into the feed tank
so as to supply approximately the
necessary quantity, and the water in
the boiler should be tested regularly
to prove whether it be alkaline. It
should always turn pink litmus paper
blue.

By means of limestone chippings
for filling, an acid water may be
passed through a large filter tank so
as to become neutralized by the large
area of chips exposed to its action.
Acid boils at a high temperature, and
therefore becomes concentrated in a
boiler and is a most dangerous im-
purity which should be carefully
guarded against. By the use of lime,
scale can in time be caused to form-
on the plates. If it becomes too thick,
it can be thinned away by omitting
further additions for a time. The
acid will very soon get rid of it. If
scale forms and the water is acid,
this is a proof that the water con-
tains sulphuric acid and sulphate of
lime. For such a case lime addition
is less valuable and soda must be em-
ployed. The reaction of soda with
sulphate scale is to convert the lime
sulphate into sulphate of soda, which,
being very soluble, remains in solu-
tion, and, of course, becomes concen-
trated and will, if not blown out, fill
a boiler with crystals of glauber salts.

It is often noticed that beneath a
heavy scale of sulphate of lime the
plates of a boiler show considerable
corrosion, which is attributed either
to decomposition of the scale, in the
presence of the iron plate, or to the
presence of free acid in water con-
taining lime sulphate. The remedy
again is soda. Enough of the soda
should be carbonated to deal with
the lime sulphate, and the rest may
be the same so far as cost goes.
Otherwise, if cheaper, caustic soda
would deal with the acid, or anhv-

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

drous soda ash may be employed.
Soda crystals are needlessly expen-
sive, and no advantage is gained by
their use as against dry soda ash.
The problem of water treatment is
much more serious now that pres-
sures are so much higher. Waters
that were well enough in the days
of less pressure may contain salts
that decompose at high pressures,
and may give rise to acids of a most
destructive nature.

THE law of demand and supply,
to reverse the usual order, is
found in operation in engineer-
ing development as well as in com-
mercial operations, and indeed the
two lines of effort are so closely con-
nected in modern times that it is
difficult to mark any distinct line of
separation. In our last issue the sit-
uation of the rubber trade was set
forth by Mr. Heinsohn in a manner
entirely free from any speculative
elements, the question being discussed
solely upon the relations of the two
controlling elements of production
and consumption. The latter has
overtaken the former, the demand is
pushing the supply, and the markets
are correspondingly affected.

In the present number of this
magazine the series of articles upon
the railways of Brazil reaches the

examination of the Madeira & Ma-
more Railway, a piece of engineering
work constructed almost wholly in
order to enable territory containing
vast supplies of crude rubber to be
reached at a cost which will be com-
mercially practicable.

It is the development of certain
departments of engineering work
which has caused the demand for
rubber to exceed the present supply ;
the automobile, the use of rubber
belting for transmitting power and
conveying materials, of hose for con-
veying liquids, of sheet rubber for
multifarious uses — all these applica-
tions of the once worthless gum have
made it an essential article of com-
merce. When the demands of the
engineering industries have overtaken
the supply the engineer himself pro-
ceeds to meet the emergency, and
thus it is that modern machinery,
trained engineers, and modern sani-
tation are joined to push two hun-
dred miles of railway through the
Brazilian forest that the rapids of the
Madeira river may be "short-cir-
cuited," so to speak, that transport
between the sea and the interior of
Brazil and of Bolivia may be placed
upon a modern basis, and that the
supply, not only of crude rubber, but
of all the vast natural resources of a
wide and rich country may be placed
at the service of a civilized world.

A. FREDERICK COLLINS

A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

EVER since it became a demon-
strated fact that telegraphic
messages could be sent through
space by the aid of magnetic waves
it has been felt that some similar
method of communication by tele-
phone through the air might become
practicable.

The subject of our sketch has de-
voted a large portion of his career
in the study of this problem, and the
results have been successful to such
an extent that wireless telephony has
been placed upon a commercial basis
and is meeting with various useful
applications.

A. Frederick Collins was born at
South Bend, Indiana, in 1869, being
the son of Captain Thomas J. Collins
of that place, and received his edu-
cation in the public schools and at
the old university of Chicago. In
1888 he commenced practical elec-
trical work with the branch of the
Thomson-Houston Electric Company
in Chicago, and thus acquired ex-
perience with electrical appliances and
the study of electric currents. In
1898 he began investigations into
radio-telegraphy, a subject which was
then attracting much attention, and
constructed one of the first wireless
telegraph sets made in the United
States. In the following year (1899)
he organized the American Wireless
Telegraph & Telephone Company, the
first wireless company to be formed
in America, and in 1900 he invented
a wireless telephone, first applying
the arc lamp for the purpose in that
year.

In connection with his activity in
the practical development of wire-
less telephony, Mr. Collins has be-
come well known as the historian of

the art. In 1901 he began writing
for the technical press upon the sub-
ject in which he was at the same time
conducting practical investigations,
and nearly nine-tenths of all that has
been published upon the art of tele-
phoning through space has come
from his pen, including articles in the
Electrica World, Scientific American,
Electricity, Electrical Review, West-
ern Electrician, Technical World, Re-
view of Reviews, and various foreign
periodicals. He has contributed mon-
ographs upon wireless telephony in
the Encyclopaedia Americana, the In-
ternational Encyclopaedia, the Cyclo-
paedia of Applied Electricity, the En-
cyclopaedia of Engineering, the New
Standard Encyclopaedia, Nelson's En-
cyclopaedia (London), and Experi-
mental Science ; and he is quoted as
an authority on the subject of radio-
telephony in these works of refer-
ence. During the period 1903-1906
Mr. Collins was scientific correspon-
dent for the New York Herald. He
is also the author of the following
books : Wireless Telegraphy : Its His-
tory, Theory, and Practice (1905) ;
Manual of Wireless Telegraphy
(1906) ; Design and Construction of
Induction Coils (1907) ; and High
Frequency and High Potential Cur-
rents, this latter work being in course
of preparation.

In 1903 Mr. Collins gave the first
public demonstration of the possi-
bilities of wireless telephony on the
ferryboats Ridgezvood and McCul-
loagh in the North River.. In 1903
he organized the Collins Wireless
Telephony Company, and in the fol-
lowing year he began to make, ad-
vertise, and sell apparatus for wire-
less telephony. In 1908 he succeeded

191

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

in communicating by wireless tele-
phone from his laboratory in New-
ark, New Jersey, to the Singer Build-
ing in New York City, and in the
same year he telephoned from the
same laboratory in Newark to the
Land Title Building in Philadelphia,
a distance of about eighty miles. He
also invented in that year his oscilla-
tion revolving arc lamp for the pro-
duction of sustained oscillations, and
in the following year (1909) he was
awarded a gold medal at the Alaska-
Yukon - Pacific Exposition for his
work upon the wireless telephone.

Mr. Collins has been indefatigable
in developing the business side of
wireless telephony, and in 1910 he ef-
fected a merger of the Collins Wire-
less Telephone Company, the Clark
Wireless Telegraph Company, and
the Pacific Wireless Telegraph Corn-
pan)' into the Continental Wireless
Telephone & Telegraph Company,
thus forming one of the largest oper-
ating wireless companies in the world,
of which new company he is the tech-
nical director and consulting engineer.

In 1908 he founded the Collins
Wireless Bulletin, of which he is the

editor and owner, a publication de-
voted wholly to the subjects of wire-
less telegraphy and telephony, and
which contains much material of in-
terest in its especial field. He is the
honorary president of the Collins
Wireless Society, and is a member
of the Royal Society of Arts (Lon-
don).

The relative importance of wireless
telephony in the field of electric com-
munication still remains to be deter-
mined, but there are doubtless cer-
tain departments in which it is des-
tined to be very useful. For naval
purposes, involving the exchange of
communication between vessels form-
ing a fleet, the telephone is adapted,
and for many purposes to which the
more powerful radio-telegraph ap-
paratus is unsuited the telephone may
be applied. Probably the two sys-
tems will be used in conjunction at
times, and the selection made ac-
cording to requirements, but it is
largely due to the efforts of Mr. Col-
lins that the wireless telephone has
reached the practical stage, and that
it has been placed upon a commercial
as well as a scientific basis.

SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY,
The Pioneer in Modern Aviation
See Page «$ 2_? *?

Cassier's Magazine

AN ENGINEERING MONTHLY

Vol. XXXVIII

JULY, 1910

No. 3

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

By Lionel Wiener

In the first of the present series of articles there was set forth the general conditions under which
the railway systems of Brazil had their origin and early development, together with some of the modi-
fications governing the more recent undertakings. The second paper dealt with the northern railway
and river system, including the Madeira & Mamore Railway, which appears destined to open up new
and vast fields of natural resources in connection with the navigation of the Amazon and its tributaries.
Subsequent articles will describe other systems, the whole series covering the principal railway develop-
ment of the entire country. — The Editor.

III. THE GREAT WESTERN RAILWAY OF
BRAZIL.

ALL the railways, or very nearly
all of the lines in the north-
eastern States of Brazil are in
the hands of an English company,
the Great Western. Since the
country is broken up, both in po-
litical and a geographical sense, it is
an exceptionally fortunate thing that
all these railways should be in the
same hands. They cover the States
of Northern Rio Grande, Parahyba,
Pernambuco, Alagoas and Sergipe.
The main line runs in a north and
south direction, connecting the ports
of Natal, in the north, with Para-
hyba, Pernambuco (called Recife in
Brazil), Maceio and Parahyba, with
a further extension under construc-
tion to Bahia. From each of these
harbors a line runs inland, following
a westerly direction, at right angles
to the coast.

The Great Western Railway owns
but a short line, extending from Re-
cife to Limoeiro and Timbauba ; the

rest of the system is only leased and
is of very unequal value. These lines
have been bought up by the govern-
ment at various times from the com-
panies by whom they were built and
merged into the system, and this is
the probable fate in store for the Re-
cife, Limoeiro and Timbauba Rail-
way as well. The Central Railway
of Rio Grande del Norte is still un-
der construction and has therefore
not yet been handed over.

One of the lines, the Paulo Al-
phonse Railway, is quite separate
from the rest. It connects Jatoba
and Piranhas, two ports on the Sao
Francisco river, between which there
are a series of falls and rapids, and
thus establishes communication be-
tween the lower Sao Francisco and
the enormous upper watershed that
stretches away southward to the very
verge of Sao Paulo.

The Great Western System, as it
now exists, comprises three divisions,
the northern, central and southern
divisions, each made up of a number

3-1

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196

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

RAILWAY MATERIAL AT THE PORT OF PARA

of formerly independent concerns, as
follows :

Northern Division: Miles

The Natal and Independencia Railway 120

The Conde d'Eu Railway 104

The Recife, Limoeiro and Timbauba Railway. . . . 164

Central Division:

The Central of Pernambuco Railway 143

Southern Division:

The Recife and San Francisco Railway 78

The South of Pernambuco Railway 121

The Central of Alagoas Railway 94

The Ribeirao and Cortes Branch 18

Besides the Paulo Alphonso Railway 72

Total 914

These lines are now all on the
metre gauge ; even the Recife and
Sao Francisco Railway, one of the
oldest in Brazil and originally built
with .a gauge of five feet, three in- .
ches, having been recently converted.
The name Recife and Sao Francisco
is an incorrect appelation, this line
having been stopped short at a point
many hundreds of miles away from
that river. It is customary in Brazil
to give names to all lines and
branches, and nine times out of ten
the name is incorrect, sometimes be-
ing that of a defunct company, often
of towns which the promoters hoped

to reach. The very towns themselves
keep on changing their names, not
the least among the puzzles which
the railway administration has taken
no trouble to solve. Thus Recife is
Pernambuco, Palmares is Uno, Vi-
cosa is Assemblea, Sao Salvador is
Bahia and Sao Pedro is Rio Grande.
In the railway time tables and
guides the towns are called only by
the name of the station ; thus, Rio
is not to be found, whereas Central
appears. Most towns also have a
saint's name besides their own, such
as Sao Antonio of this, or Sao Joao
of that, and are called by either
name, just as if one were a family
name and the other a mere intimate
one. The habit of changing the
names of towns is growing. When
the republic was proclaimed, old
names were erased and replaced by
new ones, such as Federation, Con-
stitution, etc. There were too great
a number of these and hence they
are gradually disappearing and be-
ing replaced by the names of local

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

197

WATER TANKS AT PARA

celebrities. We may assume that the
republican feeling remains unchanged
and that the alteration in names is
mainly due to the desire of avoiding
monotony or confusion.

Returning to the Great Western
Railway, this company is a British
one, floated with the object of build-
ing, leasing and operating railways

in Brazil. The parent line, the Re-
cife and Sao Francisco, is the best
of these. It was built by a company
and opened in sections between 1858
and 1862, starting from Pernambuco
to Uno (Palmares) and passing
through Ribeirao, from whence a
couple of branches have since been
built. It is one of the oldest lines

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

in Brazil, contemporary with the be-
gining of the Pedro II. Railway, and
two years older than the Bahia and
Sao Francisco line. It is an easy
line, with few curves and not many
artificial works, the principal ones
being a short tunnel and a 390-foot
bridge over the Ipajuca, with 90-foot
spans.

Its traffic has always been heavy,
consisting mainly of sugar, of which
51,000 tons were shipped in 1908, to-
gether with about the same quantity

imports, the ratio being about six
to one.

The rolling stock is made up of
22 locomotives, 39 passenger coaches
and 540 wagons, the highest number
per mile (7.06) in Brazil, with the
exception of the Sao Paulo Railway.

As soon as this line had given evi-
dence of becoming a paying concern,
others were thought of. The Paulo
Alfonso Railway was opened in 1881
and 1883 ; it supplies the missing link
in the navigability of the Sao Fran-

HAULING PILES IN THE BRAZILIAN FOREST

of sugar cane and 6,200 tons of
aguardiente, the spirits made out of
it. All the coal used in the locomo-
tives is sent out from England, no
wood being used as fuel, owing to
the convenience of the harbor of Re-
cife on the line. It would seem at
first sight that this is essentially a
transit line, but such is not the case,
the average distance, especially for
passenger travel, being short. In
1907 the average was as follows:

Miles.

First-class passengers 29.

Second-class passengers 18.8

Average passenger 20 . 9

Animals 38.

Luggage and parcels 39.

Merchandise 43.5

The exports are much greater than

cisco river, but very poorly, being
operated at a cost of 357.67 per
cent, of the gross earnings in 1907.
The tonnage carried by this line is
only about 2,500 tons, equally di-
vided each way.

The South of Pernambuco Rail-
way is the continuation of the Recife
and Sao Francisco Railway and was
constructed a little at a time between
the years 1882 and 1887 as far as
Garahuns. This line is ninety-one
miles in length and is a steady up-
hill' pull all the way, rising from
390 feet to 2,860 feet above sea
level. In the meantime work had
been started in Jaguara in 1884, just
beyond Maceio, the capital of Ser-

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

199

BRITISH STEAMER UNLOADING COAL AT PORTO VELHO

gipe, up the Cambeto valley, and the
Central of Alagoas Railway thrown
open as far as Uniao, fifty-five miles
to the North, near the frontier of
the State of Pernambuco. There
thus remained only a small piece of
line to unite the two systems, joining
Uniao, in Sergipe, the South of Per-
nambuco line. It was only in 1894,
after the unification of the system
that this short thirty-mile connection
was built. Garahuns and the section
from thence to Glycerio Junction,
formerly the trunk line, has thus be-
come but a branch of the through
rail conection between Recife and
Jaguara. _

The Vicosa branch of the Alagoas
Railway was opened in 1891 from
Lourenco de Albuquerque to Atalaya
and Vicosa (or Assemblea). This
line runs around the Alagoas Lagunas
and up the Parahyba valley, a distance
of about thirty-nine miles. A bill
was passed in 1909 authorizing the
construction of an extension further
inland to Palmeiras dos Indios, an-
other forty miles. This line will
gain considerable importance, as it
runs through Atalaya, the future
junction with the important Rio con-

nection, over the rails of the Timbo
and Propria line. The Central Ala-
goas Railway is a good road, in fact
as good as the original lines of the
system.

The Ribeirao and Cortez branch
was originally undertaken by the
State of Pernambuco. In compli-
ance with a clause of the 1904 con-
tract with the Great Western Rail-
way, that company purchased the line
from its former owners, undertak-
ing at the same time to bring it into
a decent state of efficiency, which
was sorely needed. It had been con-
ceded in 1881 and allowed to fall
into bad repair. This district is
especially adapted to the growing of
sugar cane, in fact several railway
lines live almost entirely upon the
carriage of sugar cane.

This branch is eighteen miles long,
with a projected branch extending
twenty-one miles to Bonito. Another
branch runs eastward from Riberiao
to Barreiros, but this is an inde-
pendent concern, the line being
thirty-six miles long and laid upon a
different gauge, two feet six inches.
It is built under a Stadoal Bill.

These southern companies carried

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

CONCRETE MIXING PLANT AT PARA

the following quantities of sugar and
sugar cane in 1907 :

Sugar

Sugar,

Cane, Aguardiente

Tons.

Recife and Sao Francisco

51,141

57,346

3,192

South of Pemambuco. . .

9,293

32,575

,023

Central de Alagoas

16,136

34,015

,594

Ribeirao and Cortez

4,661

26,895

701

The ratio of expense to gross
earnings during 1907 were 48.8 per
cent, for the Recife and Sao Fran-
cisco Railway and 69 per cent, for
the Alagoas Central. The two others
do scarcely better than cover work-
ing expenses, the figures being 99.5
per cent, for the Pernambuco South-
ern and 93.8 per cent, for the Ri-
beirao branch.

THE CENTRAL GROUP.

The Central Group consists of a
single line, the Central of Pernam-
buco Railway, built and worked by
the Government, and only recently
handed over to the Great Western
Railway Company. It is a most pro-
ductive line, despite the heavy ex-
penditure it entailed, due to the diffi-

cult nature of the country through
which it runs. A short portion be-
tween Recife and Tapera was opened
in 1885 and it reached Russinha
three years later. The Government
has extended it by fits and starts,
doing nothing for a few years and
then throwing open a further sec-
tion. Olyntho was tapped in 1896,
and ten years later work was re-
sumed to Pesquiera, the present ter-
minal, 343 miles from Recife.

Partly owing to the excellent traf-
fic returns and partly to a general
idea of linking the Great Western
System with the other northern
lines, the Government intends carry-
ing the line on toward the southern
extremities of the Sobral and Ba-
turite railways, keeping in the State
of Pernambuco all the way near its
northern frontier and up the Ipajuca
valley. The difficult portion will be-
gin toward the source of the river,
at the limit of the watershed, just
beyond Triumpho.

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

20I

A TRAIL THROUGH THE BRAZILIAN FOREST

The bill of 1909 sanctioned the
construction of a long piece of this
extension, from Pesqueira to Flores,
at the foot of the Baixa Verde
Serre, which will double the line's
present extension.

There are fourteen tunnels and
thirteen large bridges on the first
portion alone, and the remainder is
certainly no easier; the first exten-
sion of twenty-seven miles is well
in hand.

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Recently, as the Pernambuco Rail-
way had been handed over to it,
the Great Western Railway has been
laying short connection between its
lines around Recife. The Pernam-
buco Central Railway is connected
with the Union line of the southern
group and with the Timbauba line
of the northern group by a six-mile
and a five-mile branch, both import-
ant pieces of work, as one includes
a three-span bridge 495 feet long
over the Capibaribe, while the other
bridges over the Tigipio and the
Unchoa. The cost of the northern
connection was £17,817.

Two-thirds of trie returns of the
line, roughly speaking, are due to
goods-traffic. There is less sugar
than on the southern group and more
cotton. Among other export articles
coal should be mentioned; the only
coal in the country other than in the
extreme South. In 1907 the line ex-
ported the following quantities of
these articles :

Tons

Sugar 5,243

Sugar cane 9,605

Aguardiente 1,295

Cotton 5,028

Coal 9,703

Importation is about one-third of
the exportation. The company owns
twenty- four locomotives, forty-two
coaches and 188 wagons.

THE NORTHERN GROUP.

This was the birthplace of the
Great Western Railway Company.
The Recife, Limoeiro and Timbauba
Railway is its own property, held
under a government concession. The
Recife and Limoeiro line is 164 miles
long and the Carpina branch to Tim-
bauba, on the frontier of the State,
in thirty-six miles in length. The
line was opened to Pau d'Alho in
1 88 1 and to Limoeiro in the follow-
ing year. The northern portion was
then but a small branch to Nazareth,
just a little further. A special fea-
ture of the system is that the original
trunk lines have nearly always be-
come branches, owing to the fact that
connections have been built some dis-
tance nearer the coast.

The Nazareth branch was pushed

on to Timbauba in 1888, and a fur-
ther portion, across the frontier to
Pilar, was opened in 1901, adding
sixty-one miles and opening com-
munication with the Conde d'Eu
Railway in the neighboring State of
Parahyba. This last portion, to-
gether with the branch from Itabai-
anna to Campina Grande, a distance
of fifty miles, still remains Govern-
ment property and is only worked
by the Great Western Railway.

The Conde d'Eu Railway, which
continues this line, bears the name of
the son-in-law of the Emperor Dom
Pedro, whose name, like that of his
daughter Leopoldina and his wife
Thereza Christina, has been pre-
served by the railway companies,
while his own has been erased : a
revolution is no reason to cause these
names to be withdrawn as criminal,
a fact which the British-working
companies have understood.

This Conde d'Eu line keeps to the
banks of the northern Parahyba
River, from Parahyba, the capital,
situated a short distance up the estu-
ary up to Cobe, near the junction
with the Recife line. It then curves
northward to Independencia, with a
short branch to Alagoa Grande.

The original line between Para-
hyba and Independencia was built in
1883. It has been extended down-
stream to the sea shore, at Cabe-
dello, in 1889 and up the Maran-
guape River to Alagoas in 1891.

From the quay at Cabedello there
is a continual slow rise to Cobe half
way, where the hard pull begins. The
next station, Sape, is but eight miles
distant and is 285 feet above Araca,
70 feet higher is on the top of the
plateau which the line follows to the
terminal. It crosses the Parahyba
upon a bridge 792 feet in length,
with spans of sixty-six feet.

A further extension of this line
has been granted by the bill of 1909,
this covering a branch from Inde-
pendencia to Bananeiras.

North of Independencia the State
of Rio Grande del Norte is soon
reached. A line was built from

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

203

A CASCADE IN THE FOREST

Natal, its capital, southward to Nova
Cruz, between the years 1881 and
1883. This line, the Natal and In-
dependence Railway, has been
joined to the northern extremity of
the Conde d'Eu Railway since 1904;
its length is 107 miles.

The Great Western system ceases
in Natal. Another line starts from
Natal and runs straight inland. This
is the Northern Rio Grande Central
Railway, extending from Natal to
Ceara Mirim and Caico (or Jardin),
on the Sirido River. This line is

204

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

CLEARING THE WAY FOR RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION

open to Taipu, a distance of thirty-
five miles; the remaining 153 miles
are still under construction, but as
soon as a sufficient length is ready
there seems to be no doubt that the
Government will hand the line over
to the Great Western Railway, as

was done with the Central Pernam-
buco Railway.

The northern group carries sugar
and cotton in large quantities, as
below :

Conde d'Eu Railway

Recife, Limoeiro and Timbauba Ry.
Natal and Independencia Railway . . . .

Sugar,

Cotton,

Tons

Tons.

2,206

14,864

16,153

12,857

853

1331

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

205

206

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

THE GREAT WESTERN SYSTEM.

The Great Western is not yet a
system, properly speaking; it is still
a number of separate lines that have
been joined together owing to the
Great Western having brought them

to these the metre and the 5 foot 3-
inch broad gauge, we come to the
astounding total of eight different
gauges in this single State, namely:
2 ft. $y2 in. (0.75 m.) ; 2 ft. 6 in.
(0.76 m.); 3 ft. 2,H, in. (1 m.) ; 4

GREAT WESTERN SYSTEM.

Opened in Gap Southward Between
1883 Nova Cruz-Independencia

Section of Through Line.

Natal-Nova Cruz

Independenc a-Pilar 1883 Pilar-Timbauba

Timbauba-Recife 1881-1882 Around Recife

Recife-Uno (Palmares) 1858-1862 Nil

Uno-Glycerio 1882-1887 Glycerio-Uniao (Imperatriz)

Uniao- Jaguara-Atala ya 1884 Atala a-Propria

Miles.

Spanned.^

1904

1901 ,

1907

Nil

1894

310

Surveying.

all into the same hands. It is more
than doubtful whether these links
would have been built otherwise ; the
number of years that went by with-
out their having been taken in hand
before the Great Western unification,
is sufficient proof of this, a fact
clearly shown by the above table.

Most of the lines making up the
system were built in the early
eighties and three miserable stretches
of thirty miles in length were left
out for ten and even twenty years,
merely because they happened to lie
between the terminals of two sepa-
rate companies.

ft. (i m. 20) ; 4 ft. 7 in. (i m. 40),
and 5 ft 3 in. (1 m. 60). This is
interesting, but hardly practical.

Of the three groups composing the
Great Western system, the Central is
the best. The results of operation in
1907 were :

Net Ratio.
Earnings. Expenses. Earnings. %

Southern group £196,073 £124,169 £71,944 63.1

Central group 85,769 50,657 35,112 59.1

Northern group 142,525 104,120 38,405 73.0

Total, three groups £424,367 £278,966 £145,401 65.7

The following table shows the ex-
penses per mile and the traffic of
each of the groups :

Group.

South

Central

North

Passenger
Miles.

Ton Miles.

Expenses
Train Mile.

Expenses
per Mile.

Mileage

14,248,399
8,515,394
9,048,390

13,998,366
4,372,000
7,503,946

67<2 92
63d 52
76tf 70

£401 Us
318 17*
312 3s

311 miles.
142 "
329 "

Nor is this the only important mis-
take that was made. A number of
lines have been granted by the State
of Pernambuco to various private
companies, still independent con-
cerns, and all of them, except one,
are laid to a different gauge, clearly
showing the short-sightedness of
Stadoal policy as compared with that
of the Government. Thus the Ri-
beiarao-Barreiros line is 36 miles of
2 foot 6-inch gauge ; the Santos-Diaz
line is 16 miles of 2 foot 5^ -inch
gauge; the Cachoeira-Liza line is 16
miles of 2 foot 5j4-inch gauge; the
Recife and Caxanga line is 16 miles
of 4-foot gauge, and the Recife-
Olinda and Berebibo line is 15 miles
of 4 foot 7-inch gauge. If we add

The Paulo Alfonso Railway is not
included in the above table. For the
Alagoas Central, Pernambuco Cen-
tral and Conde d'Eu railways the
Great Western pays rentals. The to-
tal in 1907 amounted to £18,123.
The special tax called fiscalization
tax is due on all lines; it amounted
to £3,770.

Though the system is still isolated,
connection with the northern lines
will be established through the Per-
nambuco Central Railway, and with
the Bahia system through the Timbo
and Propria line and Atalaya ex-
tension, 309 miles, inclusive of the
94 miles of extensions. The Sao
Francisco River will be crossed in
barges, or perhaps by steam ferries,

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

207

-,- f*^n><.

■■ * Z *

3»u v

AN OX TEAM AT WORK IN THE BRAZILIAN FOREST

between Propria, on the southern
bank and Collegio on the northern.

Two branches will be built at the
same time. Work has been started,
and there is no doubt about the use-
fulness of the line, the missing link
to be bridged by the South Bahia

Railway, establishing the only re-
maining connection not yet opened to
traffic between Rio and the northern
States. The Great Western Railway
has no river navigation to compete
with, though freight, of course,
travels along the coast parallel to its

208

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

main line. In fact, there is no navig- one receiving £ 10,250 and the other

able river in the whole region, but £3,250 per annum,

the southern boundary along the Sao The coast traffic is catered to by

Francisco River makes up for this several companies, the Brazilian

deficiency. Lloyd being the foremost. None of

The Sao Francisco River takes its the harbors is of much value. Out

source in the State of Sao Paulo, of 159 steamers which visited Natal

under the 21st degree of latitude, be- in 1907, six only were not Brazilian,

comes navigable near the 20th and Parnahyba is in the hands of an

almost reaches the 8th in its flow improvement commission and Recife

northward ; an unbroken waterway is undergoing a thorough alteration,

to the sea, with a single interruption, The works are in the hands of a

spanned by the Paulo Alfonso Rail- French company ; it is the intention

way. to convert the harbor into a first-class

The southern limit of navigability one for accommodating vessels of the

is reached by two railroads, the Cen- deepest draught. It should be re-

tral of Brazil, at Pirapora and the membered that Recife is the nearest

West of Minas Railway at Parao- of all Brazilian ports to the old

peba. There is a further rail con- world and it is bound to come in for

nection at Joazeiro, above Pecanha, a large share of traffic. In 1907, as

from whence a railway line leads it is, it was visited by 1,273 steamers

straight to Bahia and carries off a and sailing vessels, aggregating 1-

notable portion of the river traffic. 459,418 tons. Sharp competition is

A number of the tributaries of the bound to take place between Recife

Sao Francisco are navigable, but and Bahia and both of these ports

such navigability will really be use- will have fine harbors in the near

ful only when it will form through future,
channels of communication. None

of the coast railways has reached table of the lines now forming

these tributaries, nor is any railway THE great western railway

likely to reach them for some time system.

to COme. Line. Miles. Building. '

t<i T T c T? XT • _ Paulo Alfonso Railway:**

lhe Upper Sao Francisco Naviga- jatoba to pirahans.". 72

tion Company owns thirteen steamers ^jf^t'funko^?1** 55

and ten launches, and in considera- v^Pa^; extended branch." ,39 About 40.

tion Of a Subsidy Of £9,^74, it is re- Pernambuco Southern [Railway:**

, J ,, . Una (Palmares) to Garahuns 91

quired to run two monthly trips up Giycerio to Uniao 30

,1 • j .. . .. . • t Recife and Sao Francisco Railway:**

the river and ltS tributaries. In I9O7 Recife (Pernambuco) and Una 78

sixty-seven trips were made, aggre- ^fea^cS^:** is

gating 63,556 miles, carrying 4,358 *££%£?$%&■ j&i^:* 21 granted-

passengers for £5,159 and 4,885 ^S;;:;;:;;::;::;; 143 About 150.

tons Of goods for £12,796. The Tigipio to Camargibe, loop 6

, e , , Areia Boa Viagem, loop 4

Steamers range from 75 tons (65 Recife Limoero and Timbauba Railway:

registered) down. %$£$&£&&*- :::::::: !„

The traffic on the lower Sao Fran- £^&^&i&*.-.:::: gj

cisco is sufficient to warrant compet- Copu^dt'0EcVwruaoy:** 48

ing lines. The Pernambuco Com- Aiagoa Grande Branch 15

r . r , Junction to Independencia 41

pany runs tOUr Steamers Of 32, 67, Independencia Bananeiras Branch About 30

o/-vt n-nA ^.r^ *,.„„ _i • ^1 Natal and Independencia Railway.**

207 and 24O tons, plying Up the Natal to Independencia .... 107

river ; the Lower Sao Francisco Com-

pany operates two more steamers, ^:SXLlres,?ythegoveminentof theUn!on'withou*

and both companies draw a subsidy, ^^ Ag^JZfST * ****^ "*

(To be Continued.)

MODERN CAR-WHEEL TURNING

By "Walter L. Clark

THE enormous railway mileage
in the United States and the
high price of skilled labor have
had the effect for many years of de-
veloping anything to do with the me-
chanical equipment to a very high
point of efficiency. This is becoming
better understood year by year, so
that countries in parts of the world
where railroad development has not
been very great are turning more and
more to America for standards of
equipment, especially in the necessary
machine outfit for maintaining rolling
stock.

The work of repairing locomotives
and cars is of such a diversified na-
ture that it is sometimes difficult to
point out specific instances of advan-
tage of American machine tool
equipment over that in use in the
older and smaller countries of
Europe.

A recent case, however, has come
to the writer's attention, where a
parallel can be fairly drawn which,
we think, will be of some interest to
your readers. In the issue of Cassier's
Magazine, March, 1910, in an article
entitled "Tramway Repair Works
and Machinery," a car-wheel turn-
ing lathe constructed by an English
builder is illustrated and described.
The writer states that the steel used
for car wheels being hard, and the
skin constantly made harder by roll-
ing on the rails, together with the
friction of the brakes, makes it im-
possible for an ordinary wheel lathe
to turn these tires in a reasonable
time, taking as long as 8 to 10 hours
to turn a pair, even when using the
best high-speed steel, the chatter due
to want of rigidity in the lathe caus-

ing the tools quickly to lose their cut-
ting edge.

The machine illustrated, he states,
has been designed to meet this diffi-
culty, the new lathe having an aver-
age output of six pairs of wheels per
day.

I think it will be safe to say that
the output of the best American
lathes averaged six pairs of wheels
per day fully ten years ago, and no
particular point was made of it. This
was when using tool steel of the or-
dinary variety. Since the advent of
the high-speed tool steel the de-
signers of the United States have
brought up their machine tools from
year to year to a constantly higher
state of efficiency, until the best lathes
were probably averaging 12 pairs of
wheels per day five years ago.
Within the past two or three years
this output has been steadily in-
creased by improvements in design
and methods of handling, until at the
present time many railroads are
equipped with lathes turning out
from sixteen to twenty pairs of 36-
inch wheels in ten hours, these out-
puts being readily obtainable with
tires of all the standard makes of
England, Germany and America.

The latest report we have seen in
which a detailed record has been kept
of tire turning, is one from a day's
run on a Niles-Bement-Pond wheel
lathe at the West Albany shops of
the New York Central & Hudson
River Railroad. We are informed
that the tires on these wheels were
about equally divided between an
American make and those turned out
by Messrs. Krupp. We are further
informed that the work was done by

209

2IO

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

B^Aii n ■

J^f"*T ? *lR31y

■■■■■pB^^IPkHHpphmB

^^^^kmmm^^m»mmmi

■■■I QflK^H

CAR-WHEEL LATHE. NILES-BEMENT-POND CO., NEW YORK. ON THIS LATHE 33 PAIRS OF WHEELS WERE

TURNED IN 9 HOURS AND 53 MINUTES

the ordinary railroad shop workmen, average of 17 minutes and 58 seconds

It will be noted that thirty-three pairs per pair.

of 36-inch wheels were turned in 9 Another statement comes to us of

hours and 53 minutes, being an a test made by Messrs. William Sell-

CAR-WHEEL LATHE. WILLIAM SELLERS & CO.. INC., PHILADELPHIA. ON THIS LATHE SIX PAIRS OF WHEELS
WERE TURNED IN 2 HOURS AND 11 MINUTES

CAR-WHEEL TURNING

211

SELLERS CAR-WHEEL LATHE, SHOWING HEADS AND DRIVING DOGS

ers & Company, Inc., in their own
shop, in which one of their lathes
turned six pairs of 36-inch wheels in
2 hours and 11 minutes.

Wheel lathes in the United States
were gradually increased in weight
and power until it was finally found
that the wheels and axles themselves
were the weak point in the turning
operation. Recognizing this fact
Messrs. Small & McNaughton, well
known railroad engineers, brought
out about twenty years ago a de-
sign of a machine to overcome this
difficulty. This lathe at that time was
quite a radical departure from the
ordinary design. The turning of the
axles on centers was abandoned, the
entire axle journal being received in
the head by means of a split bush
made to fit the axle, and having its
exterior turned taper. This elimin-
ated the obvious weakness and hence
springing of the center and its pro-

jecting spindle; it held the axle rig-
idly close up to the wheel. The old
form of wheel lathe was driven from
one end and the power carried across
the machine by a long shaft. This
put an inevitable amount of torsion
and lack of rigidity between the point
at which the power was applied, and
the wheel to be turned at the other
end of the axle, and it was found to
be one serious source of vibration
and chatter. To overcome this diffi-
culty the Small & McNaughton de-
sign was driven by a large spiral gear
in the center, having a gap through
which the axle could be rolled. The
power from this large central drive
was furnished to each wheel through
face plates. The outside spindles
supporting the axle were also pro-
vided with face-plates and chucks,
hence the wheels were clamped rig-
idly between two staunch face-plates,
driven from one and chucked by the

212

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

POND PNEUMATIC TOOL CLAMP

other; thus the wheels were held
with absolute rigidity and became, in
fact, one with the machine itself.

On a modern wheel lathe no atten-
tion is paid to the hard skin of the
tire caused by friction of the wheels
and brake-shoes, for the simple rea-
son that the tool is put directly under
this scale and a heavy roughing cut
can be fed across in eight or nine
minutes. After that a finishing tool
is used the full width and shape of
the tread, and fed directly in without
any use of cross-feed, a third tool
the shape of the flange finishing the
operation.

The more recent lathes show no
very marked improvement in general
design, the increased output coming
from great weight and power and
improved facilities for handling, and
getting the wheels in and out of the
lathe, and from the higher quality
tool steel.

After the capacity of the wheel
lathe got up to twenty or more pairs

of wheels a day, the manual labor of
clamping and unclamping the cutting
tools became quite a serious matter
for the operator, and a number of
devices have been brought out to
lighten and quicken this operation.
The limit of human endurance comes
into the problem, and where clamp-
ing and unclamping had to be done
with a wrench on, say, twenty pairs
of wheels per day, it would mean 350
to 400 manipulations in ten hours.

One device that has been brought
out is in the form of a turret tool-
holder, which has the roughing and
finishing tools set in it, the holder be-
ing rotated to bring the various forms
into action.

Another device which is illustrated
in this article is a pneumatic clamp
by which the operator simply opens a
compressed air valve and clamps his
tool by power. In this arrangement
the air cylinder is built in the body
of the tool rest; the piston carries a
wedge, which, operating between two

CAR-WHEEL TURNING

DATA OF TEST OF NILES-BEMENT-POND CAR-WHEEL LATHE.

POND 42-INCH MOTOR-DRIVEN CAR-WHEEL LATHE
AT WEST ALBANY CAR SHOPS, N. Y. C. & H. R. R.R. 36-INCH KRUPP AND PAIGE WHEELS,

MAY 11, 1910.
CONTINUOUS RUN FROM 7 A. M. UNTIL 5:53 P. M., ONE HOUR FOR NOONING.

Pair No 123456789 10 11 Average.

Putting in lathe 3 2 2 3 2 2 2 3 2 3 22 min., 28 sec.

Roughing 11 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 11 10 10 9 min., 23 sec.

Finishing 5 6 4 3 5 4 6 4 7 5 55 min., 7 sec.

Taking out 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 min., 0 sec.

Time from floor to floor 20 17 16 16 17 16 18 17 21 19 18 17 min., 58 sec.

Depth of cut Vt Vi 3/ie Vi 3/i6 Vs Vs 3/i6 Vif, Vi 3/i6 3/i6 inch.

Feed a/zi 13/32 "/n 13/32 13/az 13/32 I3/32 13/32 13/32 13/32 K/i2 13/32 inch.

Speed 16 16 17 15 14 12 13 18 12 14 15 14.4 feet.

Pair No 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Average.

Putting in lathe 24222432233 2 min., 28 sec.

Roughing 9 11 12 8 9 8 10 8 9 9 11 9 min., 23 sec.

Finishing 5 5 8 4 5 4 6 7 5 5 65 min., 7 sec.

Taking out 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 min., 0 sec.

Time from floor to floor 17 21 23 15 17 17 20 18 17 18 21 17 min., 58 sec.

Depth of cut Vs 3/is Vi Vi 3/ie Vie Vi V* V* 3/ii 3/j6 3Ae inch.

Feed r>/32 13/32 '7lS H/s! 13/32 13/32 ?/32 1!/32 13/32 3/32 3/32 I3/32 inch.

Speed 15 13 10 14 12 15 11 12 10 14 12 14.4 feet.

Pair No 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 Average.

Putting in lathe 2 3 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 1 12 min., 28 sec.

Roughing 9 11 9 10 7 10 9 10 10 7 10 9 min., 23 sec.

Finishing 5 6 5 6 5 6 5 4 3 5 55 min.. 7 sec.

Taking out 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 min., 0 sec.

Time from floor to floor 17 21 17 19 16 20 18 18 17 14 17 17 min., 58 sec.

Depth of cut Vi Vis Vs Vi 3/is Vi Vis 3/i6 Vi Vis Vi 3/i6 inch.

Feed u/a Wi? I3/32 13/a2 13/32 13/32 13/32 13/32 ,3/32 13/32 13/m 13/32 inch.

Speed 14 13 11 14 20 15 17 17 16 21 18 14.4 feet.

AVERAGE TIME FOR TURNING, 17 MIN., 58 SEC. TOTAL TIME FOR 33 PAIRS, 9 HOURs, 53 MIN.

rollers as shown, forces up the long
end of the clamping lever; thus the
operator is relieved from several hun-
dred strenuous muscular exertions,
leaving him more efficient to attend
to the actual turning operations.

Without going into the details of
the matter, the driving wheel turning
has been improved on the same basis
of reasoning, viz. : to hold the work
rigidly in the machine, so that
springing away from the tool and
chattering will be prevented.

A few years ago one to two pairs
of 84-inch driving wheels a day was
considered a normal output; now
with modern American machines
many shops are turning out from six
to ten pairs in ten hours.

The economy tc the Railroad Com-
pany by the use of these wheel turn-
ing machines alone will be readily
appreciated. In a recent visit to a
European government railroad shop,
the writer saw a wheel lathe running
at a very low speed and very fine
feed, and inquired of the operator
what the output of the machine was.
The reply was that he was turning
one pair of 48-inch wheels every
three days. This, of course, was an

extreme case, but we believe it will
be found to be a fact that to turn a
pair of 84-inch driving wheels in ten
hours will be considered a fair day's
work in most any Continental or
British railroad shop.

We believe it to be a demonstrable
fact that the output per man in an
American locomotive works is fully
double what it is in England. It is
a common thing to find machines
working in English shops that have
been there for twenty-five or thirty
years, during which period in almost
any American shop at least two gen-
erations of tools have passed away.

We have become accustomed to
general statements of this character,
but in the present instance of wheel
turning we have a clean-cut case,
which must be met somehow. Is it a
fact, or is it not?

According to the article we have
referred to, the output per lathe in
England is from three to six pairs
of wheels per day. In America the
output per lathe is from twelve to
twenty-five per day. There are many
thousands of wheels being turned
yearly by the English railroads, and

2I4

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

the cost in hours of labor is about
four times what it should be.

If there is any doubt about this
the evidence is at hand. Further-
more, we believe this same deadly
parallel runs through most of the
other tools in the shop, and addi-
tional comparisons will be of much
interest.

Several years ago a statement was
published by one of the largest loco-
motive builders in Great Britain that
with about 14,000 men their output
was six hundred engines per year.
At that very time the output of the
same number of men in America was
1,800 engines a year, or three to one.
An answer might be made to this
statement that the British-built engine
is better finished than the American,
and to avoid argument this could be

admitted and there would still be 100
per cent, or two engines to one to be
accounted for.

It is particularly to be noted that
this comparison is in hours of labor,
with no uncertainties of cost to bur-
den the reasoning.

Similar improvements have been
made in American tools for the other
leading operations on a locomotive,
such as boring cylinders, machining
side-rods, turning axles, boring
wheels, etc. This cannot be taken up
in detail at this time.

The American locomotive shop is
open. "Visitors are welcome !" This
is practically over each door.

How is it that a leading English
firm can put upon the market a new
machine with a quoted capacity
nearly two decades behind the times?

THE PROPULSION OF CARGO BOATS

AN INVESTIGATION AS TO THE BEST SYSTEM OF PROPULSION IN VIEW OF
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN ENGINEERING.

By R. M. Neilson, M. I. Mech. E.

RECIPROCATING ENGINES

WHAT may be called the
standard propelling ma-
chinery for cargo-carrying
steamships at the present day com-
prises return fire-tube boilers and re-
ciprocating triple-expansion or quad-
ruple-expansion engines. The steam
pressure is usually between 160 and
200 pounds per square inch.

The present type of machinery has
been gradually evolved, improve-
ments having been continually made
and steam pressures raised. The
latest improvements of importance
have reference to the condensing
plant.

Figs. 1 and 2 illustrate a typical
set of cargo-boat engines, except that
the condenser, which is of the Con-
traflo type, is smaller than has usu-
ally been employed until recently.
These engines are of the triple-ex-
pansion type and of about 1,400 in-
dicated horse-power, and have been
built for a single-screw vessel and
for a steam pressure of 180 pounds
per square inch above atmosphere.
The high-pressure cylinder is fitted
with a piston valve and the inter-
mediate and low-pressure cylinders
with double-ported slide valves, the
valve gear being of the ordinary
link-motion design. A steam revers-
ing engine of the "all-round" type is
provided. The cranks are built up,
and the crankshaft is in three inter-
changeable pieces. The round front
columns, as well as the square back
columns, are of hollow cast iron, and
the bedplate is of the same material.
The engines have been built at the
Hartlepool works of Messrs. Rich-
ardsons, Westgarth & Co., Ltd.

The economy now obtainable with
cargo-boat machinery is so high that
there seems little prospect of sub-
stantial improvement, unless by some
radical change ; and in considering
possible alternatives to the present
machinery of propulsion one must
bear in mind that initial cost is a
very important item. Moreover, in
the case of vessels which may have
to travel all over the seas it is de-
sirable that complicated, little-under-
stood or unpopular machinery should
be avoided unless capable of show-
ing some very good reason for its
adoption.

As regards the boiler room, water-
tube steam generators offer oppor-
tunity for reduction of weight, and
therefore reduction in a vessel's dis-
placement for a given cargo-carrying
capacity ; but unless water-tube boilers
can be sold at a price little in ex-
cess of that accepted for fire-tube
boilers and can be so constructed that
their cost of maintenance is not ma-
terially greater than that of fire-tube
boilers, no financial benefit can, as a
rule, be expected from their adoption
in a low-speed cargo boat, in which
a slight reduction in displacement and
engine power, such as could be ob-
tained by a reduction in the boiler-
room weights, does not represent a
great difference in the cost of the
hull.

As regards the engine room, many
schemes for the employment of ma-
chinery to replace the present type
of reciprocating engines have lately
been proposed ; but, before dealing
with these, it will be convenient to
refer to a means which offers a
chance of substantial improvement in

215

2l6

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 1. TRIPLE-EXPANSION MARINE ENGINE. RICHARDSONS, WESTGARTH Ss. CO., LTD.

economy without calling for great
alteration in the present engine-room
machinery — namely, the employment
of superheated steam.

SUPERHEATED STEAM FOR RECIPROCAT-
ING ENGINES

Superheated steam, as is well
known, was employed to a consider-
able extent and with good results in

reciprocating marine engines in the
middle portion of the last century,
when steam pressures were low and
fuel consumption high ; but the re-
sults obtained with these early super-
heaters, which necessarily worked
under conditions differing greatly
from present-day practice, are of lit-
tle service in solving the problem as

CARGO-SHIP PROPULSION

217

FIG. 2. TRIPLE-EXPANSION MARINE ENGINE, SAME AS FIG. 1

to the advisability of employing su-
perheaters in modern cargo boats.

In recent times, however, attempts
have been made to employ super-
heated steam with reciprocating en-
gines both on land and at sea ; and it
may be said that in every case the
adoption of superheating has led
to a reduction in coal consumption,
although there is some difference of
opinion as to whether a real increase

in economy, considering all things,
has been attained. Even if this ques-
tion is settled, as it probably soon
will be, in favour of superheating,
there remains the objection as re-
gards tramp steamers that the em-
ployment of superheated steam calls
for more careful handling of both
boilers and engines than is often ac-
corded to the propelling machinery
of these vessels; and anything which

3l8

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Sat.

I0O * 150

2oo

25-0

o o

15
20
25
30
35
4-n

» °

sat. 50 loo 150 200 250

Superheat- Hegi-ces TUhr.
3. EFFECT OF SUPERHEAT ON STEAM CONSUMP-
TION OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES. RESULTS OF
VARIOUS TESTS.

appears to increase complication or
risk of breakdown is generally looked
on with disfavour by the ship owner.
Many tests might be quoted to
show the reduction in steam con-

small inaccuracies in measurement
are to be expected. The tests in
question were made by Dr. D. S.
Jacobus last year on the engines of
the steam yacht Idalia under service
conditions. The yacht has four-
cylinder triple-expansion engines 113/2
inches, 19 inches, 22 11/16 inches and
22 11/ 16 inches in diameter by 18-
inch stroke.*

The results of the tests are given
in Table I. The figures in the last
three lines of the table were calcu-
lated by the writer, the mean specific
heat of the steam being taken as 0.6.
The steam consumption was obtained
by Dr. Jacobus by weighing the
water of condensation ; and it will be
seen that a superheat of 105 degrees
F. reduces the steam consumption
about 15 per cent. No attempt was
made to measure the coal consump-
tion, and it is questionable if any use-
ful result would have been derived
from such measurement, as the boiler
was designed to supply superheated
and not saturated steam, the de-
signed superheat being 100 degrees
F. The last line in the table supplies
the required information as to the
reduction in coal consumption to be
expected from superheating, assum-
ing the efficiency of the boiler to re-
main constant.! The difference in
the hot well temperatures will not

table 1.

S. Y. Idalia. Steam Consumption with Saturated and Superheated Steam.

Date, 1909 Oct. 11

Degrees Fahrenheit of superheat.

Steam pressure at throttle, pounds per square inch, abs

Vacuum, inches of mercury*

Hot well temperature

Revolutions per minute

Indicated horse-power

Water per hour, pounds

Water per I. H. P. per hour, pounds

Heat in steam consumed per I. H. P. per hour, B. T. U

Per cent reduction in steam consumption per I. H. P. per hour. .
Per cent reduction in heat consumption per I. H. P. per hour.

0
190
25.5
116.0
194.3
512.3
9,397
1{
20,400
0
0

18.3

Oct. 14
57
196
25.9
109.5
191.5
495.2
8,430
17.0
19,650
4.6
3.7

Oct. 14
88
201
25.9
115.0
195.1
521.1
8,234
15.8
18,460
13.7
9.5

Oct.

198

111

191

498

7,902

18,600

* It is presumed that the vacuum has been corrected either for a 29.92 inch or a 30-inch barometer.

Oct. 13
105
203
25.2
111.0
193.1
502.2
7,790
15.5
18,370
15.3
10.0

sumption effected by superheating.
Allowing for a certain number of in-
accuracies of measurement, these
tests are in very good agreement.
One set of tests only will be given
by way of example, and this set will
show not only what reduction in
steam consumption is obtainable by
superheating, but will also show that

affect the results more than one-half
of one per cent. The results are a
little irregular ; the irregularity is

* The particulars of the engines of the Idalia
and of the tests by Dr. Jacobus mentioned abcve
have been taken from the Journal of the American
Society of Naval Engineers, November, 1909.

t Speaking generally, the efficiency of boiler
plus superheater may be either greater than, equal
to, or less than, the efficiency of boiler alone, ac-
cording to the boiler and superheater design and
arrangement.

CARGO-SHIP PROPULSION

219

FIG. 4. CENTRAL SUPERHEATER FITTED TO MARINE BOILERS

only partly accounted for by the
variation in the vacuum and must be
further accounted for by inaccuracies
of measurement ; but the results show
that a reduction of about 9 or 10 per
cent, in coal consumption can be ex-
pected from a superheat of 100 de-
grees F.

In Fig. 3 the points show the re-
sults of independent tests made by
different engineers at various times
on reciprocating engines, and give an
idea of the percentage reduction in
steam consumption which may be ex-
pected from employing superheated
steam. The discrepancy in the re-
sults is accounted for, in the first
place, by the engines being of differ-
ent types and sizes, in the second
place by inaccuracies of measure-
ments, and, in the third place, by the
fact that in some cases the compari-
son was made with dry, saturated
steam, while in other cases the satur-
ated steam contained water which
was reckoned as steam.

MARINE SUPERHEATERS AT PRESENT
IN USE

The Central Marine Engine Works,
West Hartlepool, have in recent years
fitted superheaters to several vessels.
In 1891 a superheater or "steam
dryer" was fitted on board the steam-
ship Elmete, owned by the London &
Northern Steamship Company. A
few years later the steamship Inch-
mona was fitted with a superheating
installation by the same company with
five-crank quadruple-expansion en-
gines and a boiler pressure of 255
pounds. The Inchmona installation
gave such encouraging results that
the Inchdune and Inchmarlo , built
for the same owners in 1900, were
provided with an improved arrange-
ment of superheater by the same
makers and proved very economical
of coal in service.

Fig. 4 shows the arrangement of
"Central" superheaters as applied to
marine return-fire-tube boilers, and
Fig. 5 shows the same arrangement

220

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

SafehyVklvt

U.._^__

J i

I Fije Tube j

I Boiler I

-~«qp

StokehoWFtooT

FIG. 5. ARRANGEMENT OF CENTRAL SUPERHEATER AS FITTED TO A MARINE BOILER

with the pipe connections. It will be
seen that the superheating tubes are
of a wavy nature, these tubes being
arranged in three parallel sets. Each
set connects a top header with a bot-
tom header. The saturated steam is
led to the top headers and passes
from the lower headers to the engine.
Superheaters of this nature were
fitted on the Inch dune and Inchmarlo
above referred to, and it may be in-
teresting to give some particulars of
the installation in one of these ves-
sels. In the Inchmarlo, for example,
the boilers and superheaters were de-

signed for a working pressure of 267
pounds and a superheat of about 70
degrees. The cylinders are of the
five-cylinder, five-crank, quadruple-
expansion type, with the first inter-
mediate, second intermediate and two
low-pressure cylinders steam jack-
eted. The following temperatures
were measured in a test made on Oc-
tober 26, 1900 :

On deck 53 degrees Fahr.

In stokehold 77|

Hot gases entering superheater 587

Hot gases leaving superheater 543

Steam at inlet to superheater 412 " "

Steam at exit from superheater 469J

Steam at high pressure steam chest.. . . 447

CARGO-SHIP PROPULSION

221

i-C"

fiV.'"

FIG. 6. SCHMIDT SUPERHEATER AS APPLIED TO A FIRE-TUBE BOILER

The Schmidt system of superheat-
ing steam has been applied to a very
large number of vessels belonging
chiefly to continental companies or
governments. The power of the ves-
sels to which the Schmidt system has
been applied varies from ioo horse-
power to 15,000 horse-power; and
the ships include cargo boats, pas-
senger steamers, tugs and warships.
In the Schmidt system, as applied to
marine return-fire-tube boilers, super-
heater pipes are led to and fro within
the fire tubes as shown in Fig. 6.
These superheater pipes lead from,
and return to, headers which are
usually arranged vertically across the
front of the boiler, as shown in Figs.
6, 7, 8 and 9. The headers are ar-
ranged in duplicate, one header to
convey the saturated steam to the
superheater tubes and the other to
convey the superheated steam to the
main steam pipe to the engines. It
will be seen in Fig. 6 that the steam
passes through several fire tubes in
series. The ends of the superheater
pipes, where they join the headers,
are provided with a collar which can
be clearly seen in Figs. 6 and 7. The

collars are for jointing purpose's, and
each is held in place by a cast-steel
dog secured by a single bolt. If one
of the superheater pipes should leak,
or if for any reason it should be de-
sired to remove this pipe, this can be
accomplished by unscrewing two nuts,
one securing the dog at the inlet end
of the pipe and the other the dog at
the exit end. The defective pipe can
then be removed and stoppers placed
in the holes, and the boilers continue
steaming with the single element re-
moved. The superheater and boiler
tubes are usually cleaned by means
of steam jets.

Some particulars of the steamship

FIG. 7. DETAIL OF SCHMIDT SUPERHEATER

222

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Lowenburg, fitted with a Schmidt
superheater, may be of interest. The
Lowenburg belongs to the Hansa
Line and was built in 1907 by Messrs.
Swan, Hunter & Wigham Richard-
son. She has a length of 398 feet
and a breadth of 54 feet. The regis-
tered tonnage is 4,657, the gross ton-
nage 4,444 and net tonnage 2,397.
The ship is provided with triple-ex-
pansion engines, the cylinders being
respectively 26-inch, 42^-inch and
70-inch diameter by 48-inch stroke.
The steam is generated in two single-
ended boilers at a pressure of 180
pounds per square inch. The grate
area is 121 square feet, the heating
surface, excluding the superheater, is
5,356 square feet, and the superheater
surface is about 2,000 square feet.

In the Watkinson uptake type of
marine superheater, as constructed by
Messrs. Mechan & Sons, Scotstoun,
Glasgow, a pair of headers is pro-
vided, these two headers being hori-
zontal and connected together by in-
verted U-tubes. The arrangement is
shown in Figs. 10, 11, 12 and 13. The
saturated steam is admitted to the
header nearest the boiler, and the
superheated steam withdrawn from
the other header. The headers are
cylindrical and contain no longitudi-
nal bolted joints. Fig. 14 shows the
method adopted of expanding the
tubes, which method is also employed
should it be necessary to re-expand
or to plug a defective tube.

THE PROS AND CONS OF SUPERHEATING

The addition of superheating tubes
adds little to the weight of a boiler
even if the grate area and water-
heating and steam-generating surface
remain unchanged ; but for equal en-
gine power the boiler weights (ex-
cluding the superheaters) should be
reduced by the adoption of super-
heating, because both the grate area
and the heating surface (excluding
superheater surface) can be reduced,
owing to the reduced steam consump-
tion of the engines.

Superheaters have in many cases
been added to vessels which have

been in service using saturated steam,
and the original boilers have been
maintained unaltered except for the
addition of the superheaters ; and in
some instances, where the chief rea-
son, or one reason, for adopting su-
perheating was on account of de-
ficiency in the boiler capacity, the
original grate area and heating sur-
face have been found to be about
right for use with the superheaters.
In the case of boats originally de-
signed for superheated steam, there
is no unanimity of opinion as to the
permissible reduction in boiler grate
area and heating surface due to the
provision of superheaters ; and in
some quarters there is an inclination
to effect no reduction at all, so that
with the superheaters out of use an
ample supply of steam could be given
to the engines, the superheaters be-
ing considered as an auxiliary equip-
ment which should not be relied upon.
In the writer's opinion superheating
should not be so treated. Superheaters
should be installed only if they are
going to be considered as an integral
part of the propelling machinery ;
and the boilers and engines should
be designed and proportioned for
the degree of superheat at which it is
intended to work. Only by this
means can the full advantage of em-
ploying superheated steam be ob-
tained. The writer would suggest
that in designing marine boilers for
use in conjunction with superheaters,
the grate area and the heating sur-
face (excluding superheater surface)
should, as far as can conveniently be
arranged, be made smaller than
would be provided in the case of
saturated steam by a percentage
which, in the case of the grate area
is one-half, and in the case of the
heating surface is two-thirds of the
percentage reduction in steam con-
sumption indicated in Fig. 3.

It may therefore be accepted that
the boiler-room weights will not be
increased by the adoption of super-
heating.

As regards the engines, it appears
that with due care the ordinary de-

CARGO-SHIP PROPULSION

223

224

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

U^>

FIG. 10. CONNECTIONS OF WATKINSON SUPERHEATER

sign of triple-expansion marine en-
gine can be used with safety for
moderate superheat — say 80 degrees
Fahr., with steam generated at, say,
180 pounds per square inch absolute,
above atmosphere. If, however, there
is a likelihood of the steam tempera-
ture rising above 500 degrees Fahr.,
which corresponds to 120 degrees of
superheat for steam generated at 180
pounds, the design of the engine re-
quires careful consideration.

A large number of ship-propulsion
engines are at the present day run-
ning successfully with steam sup-
plied at temperatures above 500 de-

ne 11. FLAN OF ARRANGEMENT OF WATKINSON

SUPERHEATER

grees Fahr. — chiefly on lakes, rivers
and canals on the Continent of
Europe — and in many cases it is re-
ported that no trouble has at any
time been experienced. On the other
hand, frequent cases have occurred
where serious trouble has been met
with — chiefly with regard to lubrica-
tion or lubricants. As, however, ex-
perience is gained and marine engi-
neers become more familiar with the

requirements of superheated steam, it
is to be expected that troubles will
become infrequent.

It is not only the lubrication of
the sliding surfaces in the engines
which requires careful attention, but
also the removal of the lubricant be-
fore it can do harm. As the amount
of lubricant required by the small en-
gines in a vessel is proportionately
greater than that required by the
main engines, it would appear to be
bad practice to exhaust engine-room
auxiliaries, winches, or any other
small steam plant, into the main con-
denser, or to allow the water of con-

FIG. 12. ARRANGEMENT OF WATKINSON SUPERHEATER

WITH BOILERS

densation from these small engines to
enter the main hot well, before re-
moval of the oil has been effected.
The proportion of oil in the main ex-
haust may be kept comparatively
small in amount, and this oil can be
removed by filters, of which efficient
types are now obtainable. All the
small engines can, with advantage, be
exhausted into an auxiliary atmos-
pheric condenser, and the water of
condensation discharged into a sepa-
rating tank in which the greater part
of the oil can be separated out and
discharged (with a certain amount
of water), while the less oily water
can then be filtered and used for
boiler feed. It may also be advisable
to employ an oil separator through
which the steam is passed before be-
ing admitted to the auxiliary con-
denser. Messrs. Richardsons, West-

CARGO-SHIP PROPULSION

225

FIG. 13. WATKINSON MARINE UPTAKE SUPERHEATERS IN COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION

ment of exhaust-steam oil separator,
atmospheric winch condenser, and oil-
separating tank for cargo steamships
which would appear to be of special
use in vessels in which superheated
steam is used. The question of plac-
ing an oil separator in front of the
main condenser also deserves con-
sideration.

An important point in connection
with superheated steam is that, by its
use, high economy can be obtained
without generating steam at very
high pressures.

The engine-room weights should
not be much affected by the adoption
of either moderate or high superheat,
so that the adoption of superheating
should not add to the weight of the
propelling machinery. The con-
densers will have a less weight of
steam-plus-water to deal with ; but
the ratio of steam to water will be
greater. Probably slightly smaller
condensers will suffice with super-
heated than with saturated steam, but
the saving will be trifling.

The chief effect of superheating on
ship weights has reference to the
bunker coal, the lesser coal con-
sumption obtained with superheating
allowing of less coal being taken on

3-3

board for a voyage of given dura-
tion. For short voyages this saving
in coal will of course be of little con-
sequence as regards weight carried,
but on long voyages it will be ap-
preciable.

As regards initial cost of propel-
ling machinery, the adoption of su-
perheating will probably in all cases
add to the initial cost. The installa-
tion of superheaters may be taken to
add about £0.25 to £0.5 per indi-
cated horse-power to the boiler room
costs, which will hardly be balanced
by the reduction which would be al-
lowed on the size of the boilers ; and
engines designed for highly super-
heated steam may be expected to
cost more than engines of similar
power of the usual marine type. The
difference in initial cost of propelling
machinery is, however, not so great
as to present a serious obstacle to
the employment of superheaters ; a
reduction in coal consumption suffi-
cient to be measurable in a sister ship
would be more than enough to justify
the difference in initial cost of ma-
chinery.

As regards depreciation, repairs
and maintenance, a vessel employing
superheated steam must compare un-

226

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 14. METHOD OF EXPANDING ENDS OF SUPERHEATER TUBES FROM END OF HEADER

IN WATKINSON SUPERHEATER

favourably with one employing satur-
ated steam, but in view of the mod-
erate cost of upkeep of machinery in
some vessels employing superheated
steam and in view of the high qual-
ity of superheaters now obtainable, it
would appear that it is not justified
that considerations of depreciation,
repairs and maintenance should be a
serious argument against the adop-
tion of superheating in the majority
of cargo boats.

THE FAILINGS OF THE RECIPROCATING
ENGINE

Reciprocating engines of the triple-
expansion or quadruple-expansion
type are complicated and, although
very economical in the expansion of
the steam down to moderate vol-
umes, they cannot deal efficiently
with very great specific volumes,
such as correspond to low pressures
of saturated steam. To expand to a
low pressure in a piston engine would
require a cylinder of such a size that,
not only would the cost be excessive,
but the extra weight to be carried
would be objectionable, and the me-
chanical friction, initial condensation
and valve leakage would all be in-
creased, so that no greater economy
in steam as regards brake-horse-
power could be expected. As an ex-
ample, it may be mentioned that at a
pressure of one pound per square
inch, absolute — which corresponds ap-

proximately to a vacuum of 28
inches of mercury with the barome-
ter at 30 inches — one pound of satur-
ated steam occupies 330 cubic feet.
If steam at a pressure of 185 pounds
per square inch by gauge were ex-
panded to this vacuum in a cylinder
without any loss of heat except that
converted into work on the piston,
then, allowing for condensation, the
cylinder would require to be 90
inches in diameter by 70 inches
stroke, or equivalent capacity, to
contain a single pound of this steam.
A quadruple-expansion engine to ex-
pand the steam to this vacuum and
with such dimensions for its low-
pressure cylinder might be expected
to develop about 700 indicated horse-
power at 80 revolutions per minute,
but the brake-horse-power would be
much less.

Steam turbines are simple and can
make effective use of the heat energy
in steam down to very low pressures.
Moreover, they have a very fair effi-
ciency over the whole range of pres-
sure— say from 200 pounds per
square inch, absolute, to one pound
per square inch, absolute.

There are, however, well-known
objections to the employment of
steam turbines acting alone for the
direct driving of the propellers of
low-speed vessels, especially vessels
of small or moderate size where the
power required is not great. For

CARGO-SHIP PROPULSION

227

cargo boats, where the power of the
engines is not more than 2,000 indi-
cated horse power and the speed less
than 11 knots, the direct-drive tur-
bine is particularly unsuitable.

The unsuitability of the turbine
lies in the fact that its desirable
speed of rotation is far removed
from the desirable speed of rotation
of the propeller. To overcome this
difficulty, three schemes have been
proposed and to a certain extent
tried, whereby the propeller can ro-
tate at a lower speed than the tur-
bine. These schemes respectively in-
volve :

(1) Mechanical gearing.

(2) Electric transmission of power.

(3) Hydraulic transmission of
power.

The mechanical gearing scheme,
which at present looks the most
promising of the three for cargo boat
use, will be first considered.

TURBINES WITH MECHANICAL
GEARING

At an early date in the history of
ship propulsion by steam turbines,
gearing was suggested ; but not till
recently has anyone had the courage
and enterprise to try the employment
of gearing on a large scale. During
the last year, however, important ex-
periments have been made by the
Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Com-
pany, Ltd., and a mechanical speed-
reducing gear has been tried — with
what appear to be good results — on
the steamship Vespasian, which was
purchased by the Parsons Company
for this purpose. Mr. George West-
inghouse has also interested himself
in the question and, in conjunction
with Messrs. Melville & MacAlpine,
has done much to prove the possi-
bilities of transmitting high powers
through helical gearing.

Gearing has already been success-
fully employed in De Laval turbines
to reduce the extremely high rotary
speed of the turbine wheel to a speed
suitable for the driving of electric
generators, or for the driving of ma-

chines by belts or ropes. The total
power transmitted by the gearing of
these De Laval turbines is, however,
less than that required by most cargo
boats, and the De Laval tooth pres-
sures are low.

The Vespasian, which was built in
1887 by Messrs. Short Brothers, of
Sunderland, has a length of 275 feet
on the load water line, a moulded
breadth of 38 feet 9 inches, a
moulded depth of 21 feet 2 inches, a
mean loaded draught of 19 feet 8
inches and a displacement of 4,350
tons. The vessel was originally pro-
vided with triple-expansion recipro-
cating engines by Mr. G. Clark, of
Sunderland, and was run by the Par-
sons Company with these engines in
order to get comparative data. The
engines were then removed and in
their place was installed a turbine-
mechanical-gearing system. The ves-
sel has since been tried with this new
machinery and, while sufficient tests
have not yet been made with the lat-
ter to enable it to be said what is the
exact difference in coal consumption,
there is no doubt that an improve-
ment as regards the coal consumption
has been effected. Moreover, as far
as tests have already been made,
both the turbine and the gearing ap-
pear to have worked very satisfac-
torily, independent engineers who
have seen the machinery working
having expressed themselves as well
pleased.

As regards the comparative space
occupied by the two types of ma-
chinery, this is best seen by compar-
ing Figs. 15, 16 and 17, which show
the original reciprocating machinery,
with Figs. 18, 19 and 20, which show
the geared turbines. The recipro-
cating engines had cylinders 22^4
inches, 35 inches and 59 inches in di-
ameter by 42-inch stroke. The tur-
bine machinery comprises a high-
pressure and a low-pressure turbine
arranged with parallel axis. The
high-pressure turbine has a maximum
diameter of 3 feet and an overall
length of 13 feet. The low-pressure
turbine has a diameter of 3 feet 10

228

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

BALLAST
DONKEV

BUNKER

\E3D CE3J — CE3/

S4 5S S6 60 62 64 66_

FIG. 15 AND 16. GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF ENGINES OF THE VESPASIAN

CARGO-SHIP PROPULSION

229

LOOKING FORWARD

FIG. 17. CROSS SECTION OF VESPASIAN, SHOWING RECIPROCATING ENGINES

inches and a length of 12 feet 6
inches.

The gearing is arranged aft of the
turbines. Each turbine spindle car-
ries a pinion, and both pinions gear
into a common wheel which is se-
cured on the propeller shaft. Each
pinion is of chrome nickel steel, is 5
inches in diameter and has 20 teeth.
The wheel is of cast iron, with two
forged-steel rims shrunk on. It is
8 feet 3_54 inches in diameter and has
398 teeth. In both wheel and pinions
the pitch is 0.7854 inch. The face
breadth is 24 inches and the teeth are
double helical, with an inclination of
20 degrees to the tangential line
parallel to the axis. The reduction
ratio of the gearing is very nearly
20 to 1.

For io1/^ knots the turbines rotate
at about 1,420 revolutions per min-
ute and develop about 1,000 horse-
power, driving the propeller shaft at
about 71 revolutions per minute. The

turbines are more of the nature of
machines employed for driving elec-
tric generators than of the usual ship-
propulsion type. The propeller thrust
is taken up, not by the turbines, but
by the ordinary propeller shaft
thrust block.

The boilers, propeller and propel-
ler shaft which were originally used
with the reciprocating engines have
been retained for use with the tur-
bines. The boilers, two in number,
of the return-fire-tube type, have a
total heating surface of 3,430 square
feet and a total grate area of 98
square feet. The working pressure
is 150 pounds per square inch. The
propeller is of cast iron and has four
blades. It has a diameter of 14 feet,
a pitch of 16.35 feet and an expanded
area of 70 square feet. The original
condenser was cast with the back
cylinders of the main engine and was
removed with the engine. For use
with the turbines a new condenser

230

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 18. LONGITUDINAL VIEW OF TURBINE ENGINES AND GEARING ON THE VESPASIAN

was installed, which is provided with
a Parsons vacuum augmentor.*

In gearing designed by Messrs.
Melville and MacAlpine for Mr.
George Westinghouse and designed
to transmit 6,000 horse-power, a sin-
gle pinion was employed. This pin-
ion was of 14 inches diameter and
had 35 teeth. The wheel was of 70
inches diameter and had 176 teeth.
The pitch was 1%. inches and the
total face breadth 44 inches. The
teeth were of the involute type. The
pinion was designed to rotate at
1,500 and the wheel at 300 revolu-
tions per minute. Tests carried out
with this gear were reported to be
satisfactory and the efficiency to
have been high, and the United States
Navy Department has decided on
transmission gears of this nature in
conjunction with Westinghouse tur-
bines for the navy collier No. 8. This
vessel will have twin screws driven
through gearing by independent tur-

* Most of the above information about the
Vespasian has been taken from the paper read by
the Hon. C. A. Parsons, before the Institution of
Naval Architects, on March 18, of this year, on
"The Application of the Marine Steam Turbine
and Mechanical Gearing to Merchant Ships."
Figs. 11 to 16 have been reproduced from this
paper by kind permission of the Institution.

bines. There will be only two tur-
bine casings in all, each casing con-
taining an ahead turbine capable of
undertaking the complete expansion
of the steam and also an astern tur-
bine. Both ahead and astern tur-
bines will be of the mixed impulse
and reaction type. The total ahead
horse-power will be 7,200.

It appears from the tests carried
out on the Vespasian, tests by
Messrs. Melville and MacAlpine, and
tests on De Laval and other helical
gearing, that accurately-cut double-
helical gearing suitable for use on
cargo boats could be, when new, run
with f rictional losses amounting to not
more than 3 per cent, including the
friction in the bearings. Sufficient ex-
perience has not yet been obtained
with double helical gearing transmit-
ting great powers at high speeds to
enable it to be determined whether
the efficiency will be much reduced in
service.

In order to be able to form an
opinion on the questions of desirable
speed of rotation, system of gearing
and dimensions, pitch, etc., of gear
wheels, it is necessary to consider the

CARGO-SHIP PROPULSION

231

FIG. 19. PLAN OF TURBINE ENGINES AND GEARING ON THE VESPASIAN

FIG. 20. CROSS SECTION OF VESPASIAN WITH TURBINE ENGINES

232

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

velocities of and intensities of pres-
sure on the teeth.

Let P = total pressure in pounds
exerted by the teeth of the pinion on
the teeth of the wheel in a direction
perpendicular to the plane containing

FIG. 21. ARRANGEMENT OF TURBINE GEARING

the axes of wheel and pinion. (See
Fig. 21.)

Let V = linear velocity of the
teeth in feet per second measured at
the pitch line.

Let H. P. = horse-power trans-
mitted by the gearing.

Then H. P. =

PXVX60 PV

= (1)

33,000 550

Let L = face breadth of the wheel
and pinion (measured parallel to their
axes) in inches.
P
Let p = —
L

pLV
Then H. P. = (2)

55o

p is to a certain extent a measure
of the intensity of pressure on the
teeth, whether the teeth are arranged
parallel to the axes or in helices ; but
the intensity of pressure depends on
the number of teeth in contact at one
time on any right cross section of
the wheel and also depends on the
obliquity of the teeth.

It will be obvious from equation
(1) that, if the horse-power is small,
p, L, and V can all have low values,
and the design of suitable gearing
will be a simple matter if the radial
dimensions of the wheels are not
limited. For the transmission of

large powers, however, either p or L
or V, or two or all of these quanti-
ties, must be large. In De Laval
turbines V has commonly been given
a value of about 100 feet per sec-
ond ; and L has been given a high
value compared with the diameter of
the pinion (e. g., for a 5-horse-power
turbine L is about 3 inches and the
diameter is only about 11/16 inch),
so that p has a very low value.

In the Vespasian, when the tur-
bines are together developing 1,000
shaft horse-power, V is 31 feet per
second. If each turbine develops
half the total power then, as L is 24
inches, p is 370 pounds per inch. If
one turbine develops greater power
than the other, p will be somewhat
greater than 370 in the one pinion
and somewhat less in the other. One
important advantage of employing
two turbines on separate shafts is
here seen, for, if one turbine only had
been employed, or the two turbines
arranged on the one shaft, p would
have been doubled.

In the Melville-MacrVlpine experi-
mental gear above described, V is
91.6 feet per second and L is 44
inches, so that when 6,000 horse-
power is being transmitted, p attains
the very high value of 818 pounds
per inch. This gear has not yet been
tried on board ship, but it is of very
great interest to learn that in the ex-
periments that have been conducted
on land, no trouble was experienced
with such a high value of p, because
it will not do to assume that with a
Melville-MacAlpine gear as above
referred to, but designed for a cargo
boat of, say, 1,500 horse-power, the
intensity of pressure on the teeth
would be only a quarter of that given
above for the 6,000-horse-power gear.
This would be the case only if the
tooth velocity and the face breadth
of the wheel and pinion were kept
constant. Now. with a cargo boat
having a horse power of 1,500, it
might be desired to rotate the propel-
ler at, say, 75 revolutions a minute.
In such a case, with the same size of
wheel as above described, p would

CARGO-SHIP PROPULSION

233

still have the high value of 818, and
this value could only be reduced by
increasing either the diameter or the
face breadth of the wheel.

With gear wheels with broad faces
such as it will be necessary or ad-
visable to employ in most cases, care
will have to be taken to ensure that
the pressure is distributed in a fairly
-even manner over the whole breadth
of the face. The Hon. Charles A.
Parsons, in the specification of a pat-
ent having reference to gearing, pro-
poses devices whereby a certain
amount of flexibility is allowed, so
that the gear wheels can adjust them-
selves to distribute the pressure in an
approximately even manner.* In the
Melville-MacAlpine gear the same
object is sought to be attained by
supporting the double pinion in a
"floating-frame" which is allowed to
rock (the movement will of course
be very slight) about a central sup-
port.

THE TURBO-ELECTRIC DRIVE

The second scheme, for enabling a
high-speed turbine to be employed
with a low propeller speed, consists
in employing the turbine to drive an
electric generator, which will supply
current to a low-speed motor or mo-
tors on the propeller shaft or shafts.
The high efficiency obtainable with
turbo-generators working on land is
well known ; and it is hoped that by
means of electric transmission of
power greater economy of coal will
be obtained than is at present custo-
mary in vessels driven by recipro-
cating engines, while it is contended
that an economy in weight of ma-
chinery could also be effected. In
the present investigation only cargo
boats are being considered, and in
such vessels there is little doubt that
the total weight of machinery could
be reduced by adopting the turbo-
electric drive. A small advantage
could also probably be obtained as re-
gards coal consumption. The econ-
omy in weight would not, however,
in a cargo boat be of very great mo-

* British Patent No. 13,019 of 1906.

ment. Comparing two boats, one
with the ordinary recipro-drive and
the other with the turbo-electric
drive, it will only be necessary to en-
large the dimensions of the former
and to increase the propulsive horse-
power by a very small increment in
order to allow of the same cargo be-
ing carried with the heavier ma-
chinery. The increase in the cost of
the hull would be small, while the ma-
chinery of the turbo-electric vessel
will greatly exceed in cost that of
the other ship. The subject was dis-
cussed by the writer in a previous
article in Cassier's Magazine, in
which it was shown that there was
no prospect of financial success being
attained by the adoption of the turbo-
electric drive for cargo boats. The
reader is referred to this article for
further remarks on the merits and de-
merits of the scheme.* Since then
the scheme has been further dis-
cussed before the Society of Naval
Architects and Marine Engineers,
New York ; the Institution of Civil
Engineers, London, and the Institu-
tion of Naval Architects, London, on
the occasion of papers read before
these institutions by Mr. W. L. R.
Emmet,f Mr. H. A. MavorJ and
Mr. W. P. Durtnall,§ respectively ;
but nothing has transpired to cause
the writer to change his views.

STEAM TURBINES WITH HYDRAULIC
POWER TRANSMISSION

The St,ettiner Mas chine nbau-Ak-
tien-Gesellschaft and their chief en-
gineer, Professor Fottinger, have re-
cently attained considerable success
with an hydraulic transmission gear
whereby a high-speed steam turbine
can be used in conjunction with a
slowly-rotating propeller. The prin-
ciple on which this scheme works is
that the high-speed turbine drives a
centrifugal pump which delivers

* "Turbo-Electric Propulsion for Vessels," by
R. M. Neilson, Cassier's Magazine, Sept., 1909.

t Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engi-
neers, New York, November, 1909.

% Institute of Civil Engineers, London, Decem-
ber S, 1909.

§ Institute of Naval Architects, London, Spring
Meeting, 1910.

234

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

water at a suitable velocity to a
water turbine which drives the pro-
peller. With a transmission gear of
this nature efficiencies as high as 85
per cent, have been obtained. It may
seem surprising that an efficiency as
high as 85 per cent, should be ob-
tainable, considering that 85 per cent,
is a high efficiency either for a cen-
trifugal pump or for a water turbine
and that in the Fottinger gear the
efficiency is the combined efficiency
of the two elements. The explana-
tion is found chiefly in the fact that
the power has not to be transmitted
any great distance. The two elements
of the transmission gear, which can
conveniently be designated the pri-
mary wheel and the secondary wheel
respectively, are, in fact, built up to-
gether; and the water passes either
directly from the one to the other or
by way of a very short guide pas-
sage. It is therefore not necessary
to convert the velocity energy of the
water into pressure energy for trans-
mission purposes. The high velocity
given to the water in the primary
wheel is retained till the water enters
the secondary wheel. Eddy losses
are therefore reduced to a minimum
and, as the whole apparatus is very
carefully and scientifically con-
structed, the high efficiency obtained
is only what might be expected.

The 85 per cent, efficiency cannot,
however, always be obtained : the
efficiency depends upon the condi-
tions of the case. For low reduction
ratios, say, for example, when the
propeller speed is half the steam tur-
bine speed, a simple machine is em-
ployed, having only one secondary
wheel. For greater ratios of reduc-
tion two or more secondary wheels
have to be employed, through which
the water passes in series, the effi-
ciency thus being reduced. For re-
duction ratios of 4 to 6 two second-
ary wheels are recommended.

The Vulcan Company also claim a
saving of energy to be obtained by
passing the feed-water through the
hydraulic gear, whereby the greater
part of the frictional losses can be

employed to heat the feed-water. A
saving of energy by this means can,
no doubt, be effected; but one must
be careful not to over-estimate the
advantages to be derived from such a
scheme. About 10,000 British ther-
mal units will have to be imparted to
the water in the wheels in order to
save one pound of coal ; and this
10,000 British thermal units lost in
friction will represent a waste of coal
amounting to about 80,000 British
thermal units. J he waste of coal due
to the frictional losses in the gear
would of course be incurred whether
or not the feed water were heated in
the gear, and it is to be denied that
this scheme of heating the feed water
will increase the economy of the sys-
tem; but it is as well to understand
that this improvement in economy
cannot be expected to be great.

With this Fottinger hydraulic gear,
reversing of the vessel can be ef-
fected in several ways. One method
consists in employing separate hy-
draulic gear for ahead and astern
motion, while another method con-
sists in employing certain parts of
both primary and secondary wheels
for both motions, and effecting re-
versal by re-arranging the water
passages. There is also more than
one way of regulating the speed of
the vessel ; but the simplest method
consists in reducing the speed and
power of the steam turbine by con-
trolling the steam supply.

This Fottinger gear has been tried
on a small vessel and is said to have
worked satisfactorily. The gear has
certainly possibilities of useful ap-
plication in the future ; but its effi-
ciency, at the best, compares unfa-
vorably with that of mechanical gear-
ing. More particulars as to the
working of the gear in service will
be awaited with interest.

HYDRAULIC-JET PROPULSION.

Another possible scheme of propul-
sion for cargo boats is by means of
water jets. This old idea was much
discussed at one time and was tried
on at least two British and two for-

CARGO-SHIP PROPULSION

235

eign warships between 1865 and 1882.
It has in recent years been adopted
in life boats not so much on account
of efficiency but to avoid the use of a
propeller which might get entangled.

Jet propulsion has, however, some-
thing in its favor at the present day
which it had not in the past. High-
speed steam turbines can now be em-
ployed to drive the pumps or water
turbine in place of the reciprocating
engines used in the past and the high
over-all efficiency that can now be
obtained with centrifugal pumps
coupled direct to steam turbines, and
the lightness, simplicity and moderate
cost of these turbo-pumps, constitute
factors of considerable importance in
cargo boats. Moreover, improve-
ments have recently been made in the
method of discharging the jets so
that in considering the subject of jet
propulsion one must not be too much
influenced by failure in the past but
must consider the subject in the light
of present-day attainments. Last
year the German Society of Naval
Architects discussed this scheme of
propulsion and reference may be
made to their transactions for opin-
ions on its prospects. The turbine
and pump could be run in the same
direction for driving the vessel both
ahead and astern; and reversing
would be effected by altering the di-
rection of the water discharge.

Comparing two cargo boats, one
equipped with a turbine- jet propelling
arrangement and the other with re-
ciprocating engines and screw pro-
peller, it may safely be assumed that
the turbine of the former would have
a considerably higher efficiency than
the reciprocating engines of the lat-
ter; but, on the other hand, the com-
bined efficiency of pump and jet in
the former would probably be con-
siderably less than the combined effi-
ciency of shafting and propeller in
the latter. Even with a slightly
greater coal consumption per propul-
sive horse power, the turbine-jet ma-
chinery might still justify its em-
ployment on account of its reduced
weight, bulk and initial cost, its

greater simplicity, and its reduced
cost of upkeep; but any great in-
crease in coal consumption per pro-
pulsive horse power, say above 10
per cent, would certainly prevent its
adoption unless perhaps in certain ex-
ceptional cases.

SUPERHEATED STEAM FOR HIGH-SPEED

TUBRINES.

The four schemes just considered
— viz., steam turbines with mechan-
ical gearing, steam turbines with elec-
tric transmission of power, steam
turbines with hydraulic transmission
of power, and steam turbines with
water turbines — all involve the em-
ployment of high-speed steam tur-
bines which would be very much of
the nature of the machines at present
employed on land for the driving of
electric generators. It may be said
to be now the standard practice in
turbine power stations on land in all
parts of the world to superheat the
steam before supplying it to the tur-
bines. The decrease in steam con-
sumption so obtained is so great as
distinctly to overweigh the disadvan-
tages and risks attendant on the pro-
duction and use of the superheated
steam. The tendency at the present
day is to employ a superheat of at
least 1500 Fahr. ; and anything be-
tween ioo° Fahr. and 2000 Fahr. may
be considered as in accordance with
common practice.

Fig. 22* gives the results of a
number of independent tests made in
Great Britain, on the Continent of
Europe, and in America, on condens-
ing turbines of different types. In
all cases the turbine was running at
not less than half load, and the ter-
minal pressure was never greater
than three pounds per square inch.
It will be seen that a superheat of
1500 Fahr. reduces the steam con-
sumption about 15 per cent., while a
reduction of about 19 per cent, is to
be expected from a superheat of
2000.

* This figure has been taken from the fourth
edition of the writer's book "The Steam Turbine
(Longmans & Co.), but the results of three recent
tests have been added.

236

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

vS v PERU EST- D eg-rees Fa HR-

0
«0

SAT.

2£

o -

K -

■

IH-

■

■ n

T
-

I5~

"?/i-

25-

H-

SAT.

100

/so

200

250

FIG. 22. INFLUENCE OF SUPERHEATING ON STEAM CONSUMPTION OF TURBINES.

VARIOUS INDEPENDENT TESTS

The reduction in coal consumption
depends on the efficiency of the boiler
and superheater. It is of little use
to take figures on boiler efficiency
from land practice; but it may safely
be assumed that in a cargo boat the
efficiency of a boiler provided with a
superheater should be no less than
that of a boiler without a super-
heater. Now from feed water, say, at
900 Fahr., it takes no8 British ther-
mal units to generate steam at a
pressure of, say, 180 pounds above
atmosphere, and it takes about 87
British thermal units to superheat
this steam 1500 Fahr., and about 114
British thermal units to superheat it
200. ° The superheating of the steam
1500 and 2000 therefore involves an
increase in heat absorption of 7.9 per

cent, and 10.3 per cent., respectively,
so that the reduction in coal con-
sumption for 1500 superheat may be
taken as 100(1 — 0.85 X 1-079) = 8-3
per cent, and for 200 superheat as 100
(1 — 0.81 X 1. 103) = 10.6 per cent.
The objection to superheated steam
may be greater in a cargo boat than
in a power station on land, but not
sufficiently great, in the writer's opin-
ion, to justify the denying of the sub-
stantial reduction in coal consumption
obtainable by its use. There is no
difficulty in constructing turbines to
stand a temperature of 6oo° Fahr.,
and, as said in a previous part of
this article, reliable superheaters are
now obtainable which should not
cause much trouble in service. There
is certainly a risk of damage to the

CARGO-SHIP PROPULSION

237

turbine through unequal expansion,
which risk is of course greater with
superheated than with saturated
steam. It is found, however, from
experience gained on land, that this
risk is very small when due precau-
tions are taken.

In the scheme with mechanical
gearing, however, it will probably be
found better for going astern to re-
verse the turbines (or one turbine), as
is done in the Vespasian, rather than
to reverse the direction of rotation
by gearing and clutches. The sud-
den admission of superheated steam
to the astern turbine will in such a
case be inadvisable ; and to employ
superheated steam in a vessel so ar-
ranged without providing means
whereby reversal can be effected at a
moment's notice without the admis-
sion of high-temperature steam to a
cold reversing turbines is a course
not to be recommended. To obviate
the difficulty it has been proposed to
keep the reversing turbine constantly
heated by live steam, but there would
appear to be other solutions of the
problem.

A patented heat buffer which
Messrs. C. A. Parsons & Co. are in-
troducing for use on land might,
with advantage, with suitable modi-
fications, be employed at sea, and
would be specially advantageous in
vessels where a reversing turbine or
turbines are installed. The heat
buffer is intended to prevent high-
temperature steam being suddenly
admitted to a relatively cold tur-
bine and to prevent violent fluc-
tuations in the temperature of the
steam at admission to the turbine. As
designed for use on land the buffer
consists of a vessel through which
superheated steam coming from the
boiler room is passed before admis-
sion to the turbine. The body of the
buffer is made of steel plates with
iron or steel flanges. The top and
bottom of the buffer are of ribbed
cast steel, with branches arranged to
suit the pipe connections. Soft iron
bars are supported on a cast steel
grid fitted in the bottom of the buffer

and serve to absorb the excess of
heat when steam at a high tempera-
ture is suddenly admitted to the ves-
sel or when a current of steam flow-
ing through the vessel to the turbine
undergoes a sudden rise in tempera-
ture. The buffer will also be of ser-
vice when a sudden fall of tempera-
ture occurs and, moreover, acts as a
separator, a cock being provided in
the bottom of the vessel for draining
off any accumulation of water.

THE RECIPRO-TURBINE COMBINATION.

The employment of low-pressure-
turbines to utilize the steam ex-
hausted from high-pressure recipro-
cating engines is now common prac-
tice on land; and the combination ar-
rangement as applied to ship propul-
sion has been much discussed and has
already been adopted on a few ves-
sels.

With reference to the bearing of
the subject on cargo-boat propulsion,,
the vessels of most interest which
have been fitted with combination
machinery are the New Zealand Ship-
ping Company's boat che Otaki, built
by Messrs. Wm. Denny & Bros., and
engined by Messrs. Denny & Co., and
the White Star steamship the Laur-
entic, built and engined by Messrs.
Harland & Wolff. In both vessels,
three shafts are employed, a set of
reciprocating engines driving each
wing shaft and a low pressure-tur-
bine, which normally receives steam
from both reciprocating engines,
driving the centre shaft. Moreover,
in both vessels the reciprocating en-
gines are of the triple-expansion type
and two condensers are provided.
The steam exhausting from the tur-
bine is normally divided between the-
two condensers, but, when occasion
arises, the turbine can be cut out and
the steam exhaust from the recipro-
cating engines direct to the con-
densers, one condenser serving for
each set of engines. This arrange-
ment is adopted when going astern,
the turbine shaft not being arranged
to reverse.

The ensrine-room arrangement in-

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

I I i I I I I I ■! I I I I I I I

FIGS. 23, 24 AND 25. ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINERY ON THE OTAKI

the Otaki is shown in Figs. 23, 24
and 25. The condensers are placed
directly aft of the piston engines and
in line with these, while the turbine
is placed with its exhaust end directly
between the two condensers and its
admission end between the two sets
of piston engines. The turbine does
not, however, extend so far forward
as the piston engines. This arrange-
ment is compact and convenient. In
the Laurentic the arrangement is gen-
erally the same, but the turbine is
situated further aft.

This design and arrangement of
machinery is not, however, the only
possible one for cargo boats. The
piston engines might be of either the
double-expansion or the quadruple-
expansion type — both have been pro-
posed— and one set of'piston engines
driving a central shaft might be used
in conjunction with two turbines each
driving a wing shaft. Twin screws

have also been proposed, one driven
by a set of piston engines and the
other by a turbine; and this arrange-
ment appears quite feasible; the
shafts need not be at equal distances
from the centre line of the ship. The
vessel would not, of course, have all
the advantages of a twin-screw boat.
In the Otaki the engine room was
no larger than that in the sister ship
the Orari, but the length of the Otaki
was made 4 feet 6 inches greater
than that of the Orari, to make up
for the loss in cargo capacity due to
there being three shaft tunnels in-
stead of two. In many cases, how-
ever, the engine room would have to
be of greater size for combination
machinery than for the ordinary re-
ciprocating drive. The total weight
of machinery in the Otaki is about 30
tons greater than that in the Orari,
the difference being about T,y2 per
cent, of the Orari' s machinery

CARGO-SHIP PROPULSION

239

weights. The same boiler installation
was, however, fitted in both vessels,
whereas the Otaki requires consider-
ably less steam for the same speed.

The number of expansions which
it will be advisable to employ in the
reciprocating engines depends on the
steam admission pressure and on the
pressure at which the steam is trans-
ferred to the turbine. If steam is gen-
erated at a very high presure, say
250 pounds per square inch by gauge,
and is not superheated, and if the
transfer pressure is comparatively
low — say 7 to 9 pounds per square
inch absolute — it will probably pay to
adopt quadruple-expansion for the
piston engines. The work obtainable
from the steam expanding from 265
pounds absolute (i. e., 259 pounds by
gauge) to 8 pounds absolute is some-
what more than double that obtain-
able by expansion from 8 pounds
downwards, the exact ratio depend-
ing on the vacuum, so that to get a
proper distribution of work between
the shafts, two of these would re-
quire to be driven by reciprocating
engines and one by a turbine. The
arrangement would therefore be the
same as in the Otaki or Laurentic,
except that the reciprocating engines
would be quadruple expansion. As
the efficiency of reciprocating en-
gines would be greater than that of
the turbine, the centre shaft would
transmit less power than either of the
wing shafts, but as the centre pro-
peller, owing to its greater speed of
rotation, would be less efficient than
the wing propellers, the division of
work would be conducive to econ-
omy.

Such an arrangement would prob-
ably represent the highest efficiency
that could be obtained in the propul-
sion of a cargo boat by steam power
without employing superheated steam.
The engine-room weights would be
somewhat high, but the extremely
low steam consumption that would
be obtainable would allow of the cut-
ting down of the aggregate heating
surface and grate area of the boilers
to values considerablv below the

usual. The tocal machinery weight6
would not be excessively high and
would not be an objection to the adop-
tion of this arrangement. What ob-
jection there is has reference rather
to the high steam pressure — 250
pounds.

While, as aforesaid, maximum effi-
ciency would be obtained by such an
arrangement with such a steam pres-
sure (250 pounds) and superheated
steam, it would be better to sacrifice
a little efficiency and secure a re-
duction in weight and cost of engines
by adopting a slightly higher transfer
pressure and employing triple-expan-
sion instead of quadruple-expansion
engines.

If superheated steam were em-
ployed in a combination boat, and if
this vessel were intended to run at a
speed not less than 13 knots (and
the best-paying speed may be higher
by half a knot or so in a combination
cargo boat than in one propelled in
the usual way) a good arrangement
of machinery would appear to in-
volve one set of reciprocating engines
driving a centre shaft, and two low-
pressure turbines, each on a wing
shaft. The reciprocating engine
should in this case, in the writer's
opinion, be double-expansion with
three cranks, i. e., one high-pressure
and two low-presure cylinders ; and
the transfer pressure should be high.
The steam could advisedly be gener-
ated at about 180 pounds per square
inch above atmosphere and trans-
ferred to the turbine at about five or
ten pounds above atmosphere. The
power transmitted by the centre shaft
would then be, rougbly speaking,
about equal to the aggregate power
transmitted by the two wing shafts ;
and the centre shaft alone need be
reversed. The turbine shafts could
with advantage be rotated at a higher
speed with such an arrangement than
were a single low-pressure turbine
employed ; and the whole engine-
room machinery would be of small
weight and low cost for the power.

It must not be thought, however,
that this last-described arrangement

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

is the only one suitable for use with
superheated steam, or even the most
efficient. One would expect slightly
greater efficiency with the Otaki ar-
rangement, i. e., two sets of triple-
expansion reciprocating engines and
one low-presure turbine, with a trans-
fer pressure of seven to eleven pounds
absolute, and this arrangement would
be suitable for use with superheated
steam, not only for a steam pressure
of 180 pounds above atmosphere, but
for any higher steam pressure which
might be desired. A steam pressure
as high as 255 pounds above atmos-
phere has been fixed on for cargo
boats employing superheated steam,
but there appears to be less induce-
ment to adopt such a high pressure
with superheated than with saturated
steam, as the maximum limit of su-
perheat which it may be deemed ad-
visable to adopt is determined by
considerations of temperature; and
hence the higher the steam pressure
(and therefore temperature of steam
generation) the less the permissible su-
perheat.

Whatever arrangement of piston
engines and turbines is adopted, and
whether it is intended to employ
superheated or saturated steam, it is
necessary, in fixing the transfer pres-
sure, to consider the speed at which
the vessel will do most of her steam-
ing and also to consider if much run-
ning will be done at lower or higher
speeds. Moreover, as the vacuum
obtainable with condensing plant of
reasonable weight and cost is greatly
influenced by the sea temperature, the
work obtainable from the turbine will
depend largely on the sea tempera-
ture. This is especially the case with
low transfer pressures. If, for ex-
ample, due to rise in the sea tem-
perature, the vacuum falls from 28
to 27 inches (with barometer at
30 in.), and if the transfer pres-
sure is only 7 pounds absolute and
is maintained constant, the shaft
horse power of the turbine may be
expected to fall about 20 per cent.
The route or routes on which the
ship is intended to run should there-

fore, if known, be taken into account
when fixing the transfer pressure.

The experience derived from the
Otaki has conclusively proved — al-.
though there should never have been
any doubt on the matter — that
greater economy can be obtained with
the recipro-turbine combination than
can be got from reciprocating engines
alone. In the case of the Otaki the in-
crease in coal economy over her sis-
ter ship amounts to about 8 or 10
per cent, under service conditions. It
may be said that the steam consump-
tion of cargo boats with reciprocating
engines varies much more than 10
per cent. This is undoubtedly the
case ; but when, as in the present case,
the results of carefully considered
tests on sister ships by the same build-
ers agree in the main with the re-
sults obtained on service and are sup-
ported by scientific considerations,
conclusions may safely be drawn.
Further, it may be said that the
Orari's machinery could be improved.
It might, but the Otaki' s machinery
could also be improved; it would be
unreasonable to expect that a first at-
tempt could not be improved upon.

The recipro-turbine combination has
also been proposed in conjunction
with mechanical, electrical or hy-
draulic transmission of power from
the turbine shaft to a low-speed pro-
peller shaft, which may be either the
shaft driven by a set of reciprocating
engines or an independent shaft.
Figs. 26 and 27 show an arrange-
ment suggested by the Hon. C. A.
Parsons in 1906. A set of recipro-
cating engines represented ■ by a
drives a propeller shaft b on which is
mounted a chain wheel r. Two low-
pressure turbines e, e receive, by way
of the pipes d, d, the steam which
exhausts from a. The turbines,
which exhaust into condensers c, c,
drive on to the propeller shaft b by
means of chains 0, p, q. In reversing
the' ship, the turbine is cut out and
the reciprocating engines exhaust di-
rectly into the condensers c, c by way
of the pipes i, ■!.

The writer does not himself think

CARGO-SHIP PROPULSION

241

FIG. 26. SECTION OF VESSEL, SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF RECIPROCATING ENGINE AND TURBINE

WITH SINGLE PROPELLER SHAFT

FIG. 27. PLAN OF RECIPRO-TURBINE COMBINATION WITH SINGLE PROPELLER SHAFT

3-4

242

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

that with the recipro-turbine com-
bination any indirect drive offers suf-
ficient inducement to justify its adop-
tion. If mechanical gearing is proved
by experience to be satisfactory, tur-
bines alone should be chosen for the
propelling engines rather than a com-
bination arrangement; while, as re-
gards electric and hydraulic transmis-
sion of power, the losses would be so
considerable that the increase in the
efficiency of the turbine and propeller
could hardly, except in very slow-
speed boats, be expected to exceed

the loss due to the double conversion^
seeing that — and this is the important
point — the avoidance of a direct
drive involves a less gain in the case
of a low-pressure than in the case of
a high-pressure turbine. Even in
cases where a very small net gain
seems probable, which would not
likely occur except in small vessels,
this gain would generally not justify
the extra complication and — in the
case of electric transmission — the ex-
tra initial expense.

THE NEW HARBOUR WORKS AT CONST ANZA,

ROUMANIA

By Fr. Bock

It is now fully recognized that the food supply of the world must depend largely upon the proper
provision of transportation facilities, and the engineer has been called upon in many parts of the
world to provide appliances for the mechanical handling of grain at terminals, so that trains and
vessels may be subjected to a minimum amount of delay. The great grain fields of eastern and
southern Europe find their outlet to the sea largely through the ports of the Black Sea, and hence
the following account of the important improvements at the harbor of Constanza or Kustendje, through
which much of the grain of Roumania is shipped abroad. The extent of these improvements is clearly
shown in the following pages, and the illustrations indicate the substantial character of the buildings
and works. — The Editor.

THE new harbour works, con-
structed after the plans of
M. Saligny, the general man-
ager of the Roumanian State Rail-
ways at the port of Constanza, on
the Black Sea, by order of the Rou-
manian Government, were recently
opened by the King of Roumania.
The completion of this work gives
Roumania a new and important ter-
minal and port on the Black Sea, es-
pecially adapted for the export of
the principal products of the country,
grain and petroleum. The equipment
of the harbour demands especial at-
tention, as being wholly modern and
complete.

The huge storehouses for grain
are of the greatest interest, since they
have a capacity of more than 150,-
000,000 pounds (2,600,000 bushels),
and with the exception of the old
Roumanian Government warehouse
at Galatz and Braila, they are
claimed to be the largest on the Con-
tinent.

An examination of the extensive
arrangements for receiving, weighing,
storing, and shipping the grain will
give an idea of the tremendous quan-
tity which is brought from the in-
terior of the country. It has been
only by installing the latest types
of machinery, operated by electric
power, that it has been found
possible to transfer, simultaneously,
1,200,000 pounds of grain (200,000
bushels) from the railway cars into
the storehouses, 600,000 pounds ( 100,-

000 bushels) directly into a vessel,
and another 1,200,000 pounds (200,-
000 bushels) from a steamer into a
warehouse in a single hour, as is
now done at Constanza.

The mechanical equipment of the
new harbour works and all the ship-
ping arrangements are due to Messrs.
Luther & Co., of Brunswick, Ger-
many, who were also the builders of
the equipment and floating grain ele-
vators for the storehouses at Galatz
and Braila.

The harbour of Constanza is pro-
tected against the violence of the
sea by three breakwaters, of which
the Wide Dam, extending in a north
and south direction for a length of
1,377 metres, opposes the waves
which come from the north and east ;
the South Dam, 1,496.77 metres in
length, extends from east to west;
while the Canal Dam projects at
right-angles to the Wide Dam for
a length of 119.28 metres. The
mouth of the harbour, 160.70 metres
in width, is between the South Dam
and the Canal Dam, and the extreme
ends of the breakwaters are pro-
vided with lighthouses to permit the
safe entrance of vessels during the
night.

The Wide Dam, situated at a dis-
tance of 400 metres from the mouth
of the harbour, protects the outer
harbour, providing a safe place for
vessels while steering for the inner
harbour.

The quays, as well as the break-

244

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

THE HARBOR FRONT AT CONSTANZA

waters, are built upon foundations
of concrete blocks, laid in beds
dredged in the bottom, this con-
struction extending up to the water
level, above which masonry of stone
laid in cement is vised. A passage-
way for the electric mains and other
connections is constructed in this
masonry, while the water front of
the quays is equipped with fasten-

ings for vessels, and with steps to
permit access to barges.

The water area enclosed in the
inner harbour is 60 hectares (148
acres), and in the outer harbour 14
hectares (about 35 acres), divided
into several basins, as follows :

1. The basin at the Wide Dam in
front of the quay ;

2. The basin of the old harbour,

GENERAL VIEW OF WAREHOUSES AND TRACKS 'AT THE PORT OF CONSTANZA

THE HARBOUR OF CONSTANZA

245

THE CONVEYOR STRUCTURE ALONG THE QUAYS AT THE HARBOUR OF CONSTANZA

bounded by the Dam, the quay for
piece goods and the North quay ;

3. The grain basin, bounded by
the North quay, the Mattamore quay
and the northern part of the grain
dam ;

4. The basin for timber is bounded
by the southern quay of the grain
dam, the quay of the repair docks,
and the northern quay of the timber
dam;

5. The basin for coal, which is
bounded by the southern quay of the

timber dam, and the coal quay ; and
6. The basin for the petroleum
shipments.

The depth of the water at mean
level is 8.25 metres in all the basins,
except the petroleum basin, in which
the depth is 9.25 metres, owing to
the greater draught of the tank
steamers.

The port itself, comprising an
area of about 108 hectares (267
acres) between the shore and the
quays, is equipped with ample rail-

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

VIEW ALONG THE QUAY DURING THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE BELT CONVEYOR HOUSING

way tracks, connecting all the quays,
the passenger station, the wharves
for the vessels of the Roumanian
Navy, and the grain warehouses, etc.
Since the export of products from
the port of Constanza far exceeds
the imports, especial attention has
been given to the facilities for the
rapid and convenient handling of the
special products which constitute the
exports, these being grain, petroleum,
and timber, which three materials
form 85 per cent, of the total trade
of the harbour.

The installation for handling the
grain trade at Constanza include two
storehouses, each having a storage
capacity of 35,000 tons (about 1.300,-
000 bushels), or 70,000 tons (2,600-
000 bushels) in all. There is also a
mechanical equipment for delivering
grain directly from the railway cars
into the vessels, without passing
through the warehouses at all. The
warehouses are connected with an
overhead structure running along the
edge of the quays, a length of 570
metres (1,870 feet), this containing
conveying belts, delivering the grain
into movable hoppers and chutes for
loading directly into vessels. This
delivery system is capable of han-

dling grain from the warehouses, or
directly from the trains in which it
arrives. The length of the quays,
570 metres, permits the loading of
five vessels simultaneously, and it is
intended to have the apparatus ex-
tend to serve ten ships, the vessels
being placed in two rows in this
latter case.

Each warehouse covers a ground
area of about 3,000 square metres
(32,292 square feet), with a height
from foundation to the top of ele-
vator towers of 51 metres (167 feet) ;
the vertical movement of the grain
being effected by elevators, and the
horizontal travel by conveying belts.

The equipment permits of the fol-
lowing operations :

1. The storage of grain arriving
by railway ;

2. Reloading of stored grain into
vessels ;

3. Cleaning, ventilation, mixing,
and transportation of grain from one
bin to another.

In addition to the handling of
grain, the next most important ar-
ticle exported from the port of Con-
stanza is petroleum. The installation
for handling this commodity and for
the storage tanks is situated on the

THE HARBOUR OF CONST ANZA

247

248

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

TRAVELING CHUTES FOR DELIVERING GRAIN TO VESSELS

western side of the harbour, both on
shore and in connection with the pe-
troleum basin. These include facil-
ities for receiving the trains and
unloading the petroleum and its deri-
vatives, together with tanks for stor-
age and apparatus for reloading.

The station for the arriving trains
is situated on the shore at a point
having an elevation of about 33.5
metres (no feet); there being six
tracks of 350 metres (1,148) in
length each. Four mains are ar-
ranged between these tracks, with
connections to flexible tubes at every
three metres, enabling every car in
a train to be connected with any one
of the mains. Each of the four
mains is used for a single product,
either benzine, refined petroleum, dis-

tilled petroleum, or residues, each
main being connected to a receiving
tank of 700 cubic metres capacity
(24,720 cubic feet), into which the
material is discharged by gravity.
There are twenty-five storage tanks,
each 22 metres in diameter, and 13.40
metres high, having a capacity each
of about 5,000 cubic metres (176,-
570 cubic feet) ; connection from the
receiving tanks to the storage reser-
voirs being made by pipes, 200 milli-
metres in diameter (7.874 inches).
These connecting pipes are carried on
an independent metallic structure
high above the tanks, and there are
branch connections enabling the ma-
terial to be delivered into any desired
tank. Four special storage tanks
are provided for the residues, this

THE HARBOUR OF CONSTANZA

249

AN INTERIOR VIEW IN THE CONVEYOR HOUSING ON THE QUAY

ARRANGEMENT OF DELIVERY CHUTES FROM BELT CONVEYOR TO GRAIN BINS

250

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

CONVEYOR BELT AND CONNECTIONS BENEATH GRAIN BINS IN THE WAREHOUSES AT CONSTANZA

material being pumped through an
underground main, 250 millimetres in
diameter. All the storage tanks are
provided with covers, containing 20
centimetres depth of water, to pre-
vent evaporation by the heat of the
sun.

The reloading of the oil is effected
by pumps, these being of the double-
acting plunger type. There are five
such pumps ; one for each of the

special products, and an extra one
for reserve. These pumps are placed
about 3 metres above the dock level,,
and are driven by three gasoline
motors, two of 30 horse-power, and
one of 50 horse-power. A system
of mains connecting with the tanks
enables the oil to be drawn from
any point and delivered into a pipe
line, 1,100 metres in length, leading'
to the ships.

THE HARBOUR OF CONSTANZA

2S1

ELEVATOR HEADING RECEIVING GRAIN FROM THE BELT CONVEYOR FOR DELIVERY TO THE SHIPPING SCALES

In addition to the special equip-
ment already described there is an
electric power crane of 50 tons cap-
acity, and a number of 2-ton cranes.
Power for all purposes is generated
in an electric power house, which also
furnishes current for lighting the
harbour and buildings of the port.

This power house contains four

units, each consisting of a 400-horse-
power Diesel motor, using crude oil
as fuel, and driving a direct-current
dynamo of 270 kilowatts, the cur-
rent being delivered at 440 volts for
power, and 220 volts for lighting,
the distribution being on the three-
wire system, with a storage battery
for reserve.

ELECTRICITY ON SHIPBOARD

By J. M. Heslop

The following practical notes, forming an abstract of a lecture recently delivered before the Engi-
neering Society of the Technical College of Sunderland, will be found to cover many points in an
important special application of electricity, and cannot fail to be of interest to ship builders and
owners. — The Editor.

IT is now about thirty years since
electricity was first introduced in-
to the sphere of marine life, its
use being for many years restricted to
lighting.

The introduction of the electric
light was soon found to be a great
boon to steamship owners and ocean
passengers. It presented a ready solu-
tion to many difficulties, especially in
the case of passenger steamers. It
reduced considerably the risk of fire
from lamps and reduced to a mini-
mum the trouble and expense of at-
tendance.

Perhaps the strongest proof of these
claims is the extensive, in fact almost
universal, adoption of electric light on
board ship within a very few years of
its introduction.

The plant consists of one or more
dynamos each connected to a high-
speed engine, the whole being
mounted on a combination bed-plate
and placed in the engine room, gener-
ally on the bottom platform, and sup-
plying all the lamps with current
through insulated mains and sub-
mains. It is pretty certain that in the
case of a river steamer this is an ideal
installation, requiring a minimum of
attention ; but in the case of an ocean-
going steamer the case is obviously
somewhat more complicated, because
the steamer having in all weathers to
go literally through the seas, the in-
stallation is very liable to suffer dam-
age from the weather, and conse-
quently it requires the constant care
of a skilled attendant. But if one
considers the disadvantages and in-
feriority of oil lamps, it will easily be
seen that there is an immense balance

in favour of electric light, and if to
this is added the adaptability of elec-
tric light to decorative effects in the
saloons, etc., it will be readily seen
why electricity is now considered in-
dispensable at sea.

When the electric light was first in-
troduced there were many dismal pre-
dictions of disaster owing to the al-
leged effect of the current on the com-
passes. But although it can be shown
that the current undoubtedly has an
effect on the compasses, yet when due
precautions are taken it seldom falsi-
fies them more than a point or two.
This error is carefully combated by
the compass adjuster by the use of
magnets about the ship, and as it
varies somewhat, its extent and varia-
tion are both known to the officers, who
allow for it accordingly. In addition
there is always the standard compass,
which is situated high enough above
the deck to be beyond the influence of
the current.

In naval service the electric cur-
rent is employed very extensively, be-
ing used for lighting, including search
signal lights, heating, cooking, gun-
firing and gun-training, boat, ammuni-
tion and ash hoisting, engine and
boiler room lifts, etc. As in large
liners, the current is kept on the wires
constantly, the whole of the ship below
the waterline being alight da}' and
night.

As to the different types of engine
used for dynamo driving :

First, there is the single-cylinder
open type. This is by far the most
common type in use. It is especially
adapted to the installations of small
steamers. Direct connection with the

252

ELECTRICITY ON SHIPBOARD

253

engine shaft is the universal practice
at the present time. This method ne-
cessitates the use of somewhat larger
dynamos than otherwise on account of
the comparatively low speed of the en-
gine. To accommodate this low speed
the diameter of the armature must be
increased in order that the necessary
peripheral speed may be obtained. The
next type is an elaboration of the first,
viz., the single-cylinder enclosed type.
These engines are generally fitted with
a throttle valve governor, which con-
trols the speed within 3 per cent, from
no load to full load. The working
faces are all lubricated, the cylinder
by some form of sight-feed lubricator
and the moving parts by a small pump
attached to the eccentric, and con-
nected to the parts to be lubricated by
pipes, through which the oil is forced.
Another type is the open-type com-
pound with cranks at 180 degrees.
These engines are fitted with an auto-
matic crank-shaft governor, operating
by varying the valve travel. The
cylinder, as before, is lubricated by a
sight-feed lubricator, the moving parts
by oil reservoirs, those for the bear-
ings being cast on the keeps, the gud-
geon pin, crank pin, wrist pin, etc.,
being fed from a box on the top of the
strut. A fourth type is the enclosed
compound and a fifth is the steam
turbine, all of which are made in all
sizes.

Having said thus much about prime
movers, now for a few words about
the dynamos. First as to whether
continuous or alternating current is
the better. Although alternating cur-
rent has been used on board ship, it
has not yet been employed success-
fully. Owing to the high voltage
usual in alternating current work the
insulation must be of the very best.
Then putting aside the question of
safety, there are several things, e. g.,
fan motors, which cannot be operated
so easily on an alternating current cir-
cuit as on a continuous current circuit.
It has also been found that consider-
ably less insulation is needed for con-
tinuous current than for alternating
current on board ship. So that con-

tinuous current is practically always
used ; in fact, as far as the writer
knows, there is not a ship afloat which
is lighted by an alternating current.

The dynamo is of the multipolar
type, with either four or six poles set
in a cast-iron yoke. The winding is
nearly always compound. The arma-
ture shafts are of steel and the bear-
ings are fitted with loose oil rings
running in an oil bath, so as to be
suitable for long runs. The brush
rockers are of the type for carbon
brushes and are arranged so that the
machine, shall run sparklessly without
movement of the brushes from no load
to full load. The machine is so de-
signed that after a six-hours' run no
part of it will have risen more than 70
degrees Fahr. above the temperature
of the dynamo room.

From the dynamo we go to the
switchboard. This is the same as an
ordinary lighting board except in size.
It has in addition to the usual fittings
a pilot lamp, and, when the ship is
wired on the double-wire system, two
earth lamps. The pilot lamp is con-
nected directly across the dynamo
mains, its function being to show
whether the dynamo is generating or
not. The earth lamps are intended to
form a ready means of ascertaining
whether there is any leak to earth or
not. The two lamps are connected in
series across the mains. They thus
offer twice the resistance of a single
lamp and consequently only light to
half glow. Between the two lamps a
connection is made to earth, i. e., to
the hull of the ship, the result being
that should there be a leak in, say, the
positive main, the lamp between the
positive main and the earth connection
will be cut out of circuit while the
other will burn at nearly full bright-
ness. By turning on these lamps a
glance will show whether there is any
leak, and if so, in which main it exists.
If there is a leak it can be found by
opening each circuit switch and corre-
sponding negative fuse one at a time.
On the extinguished lamp relighting
to half-glow it indicates that the fault
lies in the circuit last opened. Hav-

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

ing thus found the circuit, the next
step is to proceed to the section box
and test with a galvanometer and bat-
tery. If the connection bars do not
show any connection to iron, the fault
lies further on, so test each pair of
terminals until the faulty one is found.
The next section to be tested is the dis-
tribution box fed by that pair of ter-
minals. If on testing with battery and
galvanometer the connection bars are
found to be intact, the fault must lie
between the distribution box and the
lamps. Between which lamp and the
box it exists may be found by testing
the terminals until the faulty pair is
found ; the leak then exists either in
the leads running from that pair of
terminals, or in the lampholder to
which they are connected, or in the
switch through which they are led to
the lamp. Obviously these lamps,
i. e., the earth lamps, are only fitted in
ships wired on the double-wire sys-
tem. Perhaps a few words on the
relative merits of the single and dou-
ble wire systems would not be alto-
gether out of place here. The single-
wire system has the by no means in-
considerable advantage of being very
much cheaper than the other, but what
it gains in this respect is more than
lost from the point of safety. While
the former method may be safe
enough, with care, for a cargo, or
even for a passenger steamer, it
clearly would not do for a ship which
carries explosives, such as, say, a bat-
tleship. In fact, the author has been
told that the various naval authorities,
British and foreign, will not have any-
thing to do with that system of wiring.
In short, the single-wire system is fast
going out of use, the considerations of
safety being of more account than
those of prime cost.

From each circuit switch on the
board a pair of cables is run to a sec-
tion box, which is a teak box contain-
ing six or less 10 ampere. double-pole
fuses, mounted in a slate base. From
each pair of these fuses a pair of sub-
mains is run to a distribution box, this
being a section box on a lighter scale
arranged generally for eight 16-can-

dle power lamps. From each pair of
terminals in the distribution box a pair
of wires is led through a 5-ampere
Tumler switch to a lamp. The great-
est advantage of this system of wiring
(known as the distribution-box dou-
ble-wire system) is that it does away
entirely with soldered joints. All the
wires and cables are run in entire
lengths from dynamo to switchboard,
switchboard to section box, section
box to distribution box, distribution
box to lamps. The only joints are me-
chanical ones, where the ends of the
cables are connected to the brass ter-
minals in the boxes and in the switches
and lampholders. The cables, wires
and fittings are all of special pattern.
The chief feature of the cables and
wires is the excessive insulation and
protective material with which they
are coated. The mains from the dy-
namo to the switchboard are covered
with a sheathing of lead. The cables
supplying the section boxes from the
switchboard are generally protected
by an armouring of steel wire in addi-
tion to the lead sheathing. This type
of cable, i. e., the lead-covered and ar-
moured, is used in all exposed posi-
tions, such as deck lights, engine and
boiler room lights, etc. In the cabins
the wires are supported by small brass
clips spaced about 8 inches apart. In
alleyways and such like portions of the
ship these brass clips are replaced by
heavier ones of galvanized iron, which
are screwed to the bulkheads at dis-
tances of about a foot from each
other. Wherever the cables pass
through a bulkhead they are carried in
a lead bush or else in a bulkhead
gland. If it is a water-tight bulkhead
they are carried in a special type of
gland, which is very much the same as
the stuffing box of a steam engine.
When the cables pass through the
deck they are carried in a deck tube.
This is a length of galvanized iron
pipe fitted with nuts and washers and
of sufficient length to protect the
cables for about a foot above the deck.
For the masthead light the wires are
run up the side of the mast in a gal-
vanized iron pipe, which is carried

ELECTRICITY ON SHIPBOARD

255

right into the lantern, thus effectually
preventing the entry of any water.

Now, just a few words as to the
distribution of the lights. In dividing
up the installation into circuits one has
to be guided by the anatomy of the
ship (if one may use such a term).
Generally the engine and boiler rooms
and engineers' quarters form one cir-
cuit, the saloon and offcers' quarters,
together with the staterooms when
there are not many of the latter, form
another ; if there are many staterooms
they form one or more circuits by
themselves. Navigation lights, i. e.,
masthead, side and stern lights, etc.,
although not given a circuit to them-
selves, are all fed from one distribu-
tion box, which is reserved for them
and is placed either in the wheelhouse
or in the chart room. In connection
with the signal or navigation lights
there is also fitted an indicator which,
should one of these lights be extin-
guished, rings a bell and indicates by
a telltale which light is damaged ; at
the same time it automatically switches
on a spare filament in the lamp, thus
avoiding total extinction. The pro-
jector and arc lamps when carried
have a circuit to themselves.

In lighting the saloons an attempt is
often made to mask the lamps ; thus in
the steamship Maure tarda the first
class saloon is lighted by means of
lamps hidden in the dome, so arranged
that they throw their light onto a
gilded convex disc in the summit of
the dome. The result of this is that a
soft red glow is thrown over the sa-
loon, the effect being that of a rich
red sunset. But unfortunately it is
not every ship which has a convenient
dome in the saloon, so the lighting has
to be carried out by means of pen-
dants, which are either polished brass
or electro-plate mounted on teak
blocks. This system is carried out in
the officers' and passengers' accommo-
dation also. In the men's quarters the
lighting is effected by means of
guarded pendants and brackets of pol-
ished brass, mounted on wood blocks.

There is one other thing to consider
before leaving the question of light-

ing, viz., searchlights. Every war ves-
sel carries from one to twenty of
these, and every vessel of any descrip-
tion whatever passing through the
Suez Canal has to carry one of special
pattern. A searchlight consists essen-
tially of an arc lamp of special form,
a parabolic mirror and a case to hold
the lot ; the case being mounted so as
to be capable of movement in two di-
rections, viz., vertically and hori-
zontally. The hood, as this case is
called, is made of sheet steel about
3/32 inch thick. The turntable, trun-
nions, etc., are cast in gun metal, the
arms which support the hood are of
cast steel. The lamp box is formed as
part of the hood. The mirror is car-
ried on springs in the back cover and
at the front of the hood is a "front
glass" mounted in a gun-metal ring,
and the dispersion lens, when carried,
is hinged on in front of this. Train-
ing is carried out by means of a worm
and wormwheel or by a rack and pin-
ion. Slewing is effected by means of
a pinion which gears into a crown
wheel on the underside of the turn-
table, or else it is done directly by
hand. The Suez Canal regulations
require that the projector shall be cap-
able of giving the light required under
two different conditions — in the first
case a broad, flat beam of light illumi-
nating both banks and the canal unin-
terruptedly, this being used when no
other ship is approaching ; in the other
case they require a beam having the
same angle of divergence and conse-
quently the same width as the first,
but divided into two portions, with a
dark interval between, thus giving
light at both sides but not directly in
front and so not interfering with the
navigation of the approaching vessel.
To accomplish this the projector is
fitted with two lenses (one for each
purpose), which are hinged on and
controlled from the rear by means of
rods attached to them. The Suez
Canal plant is mounted in a wrought-
iron cage and slung over the bows
down to the waterline, a seat being
provided for the operator. The lamp
is so arranged that the positive carbon

256

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

(the larger one) is farthest from the
mirror and the cables should line up
accordingly. The hand lamp consists
of a framework of steel rods which
carries the two arms for the carbons,
these being adjusted by means of a
right and left handed screw and hand
wheel. The whole lamp can be moved
backwards and forwards by means of
another hand wheel. In the automatic
lamp these operations are carried out
by means of small electric motors.

So much for electric lighting on
board ship.

In the early days electric power was
out of the question, because the only
type of motor then built was totally
unsuitable for ship work. But the
modern motor is as reliable as any
other power generator and is quite
capable of resisting the adverse
weather which is met at sea. It also
takes up considerably less room than
steam or hydraulic engines, and the
cables take up very much less space
than the necessary pipes, etc., for the
other power agents. In the chief
navies of the world it is now almost
exclusively used for the operation of
auxiliaries.

An important application of electric
power on board ship is to hoisting ma-
chinery. The following are some
typical examples of electrically-oper-
ated hoisting machinery. The first is a
small whip such as is used for hoisting
mails, passengers' luggage, ammuni-
tion, ashes, etc. This consists of a
single drum driven through one set of
worm gearing by a motor. The drum
is loose on the shaft and is driven by
a cone clutch ; pawl gear inside the
drum holds the load when the cone is
thrown out of gear. The barrel shaft
is constantly running, being driven by
worm gearing from the motor. When
required to hoist, the friction cone is
thrown into gear by means of the
clutch lever. When the load reaches
the required height this lever is
dropped and the load is held by an au-
tomatic self-holding brake. To lower
the load the brake lever is slightly
raised. Another type of hoist is a
coaling hoist. This type of hoist con-

sists of a powerful motor driving a
barrel and two warping drums through
one set of worm gearing. The worm
gear is enclosed in an oil bath and is
fitted with either a roller or a collar
thrust to take up the thrust of the
worm. A foot brake is fitted to the
motor shaft capable of holding the full
test load, which is one and a half times
the working load. A heavier type of
hoist is a boat hoist. This requires in
general a series wound motor of the
totally enclosed type fitted with power-
ful brakes to control the load while it
is being lowered. Mechanical friction
brakes, generally of the band type, are
used, as are magnetic brakes. As the
part they play is very important on ac-
count of the very heavy loads with
which this type of hoist has to deal,
special attention is paid to their design
and construction. In general, a boat
hoist consists of a large steel drum
grooved for wire rope and driven
through one set of spur and one set of
worm gearing. As before, the worm
runs in an oil bath and the thrust is
taken by a roller bearing. Two
brakes are fitted, one a foot brake and
the other a magnetic brake.

For a long time motor-driven
capstans and heavy winches were re-
garded very suspiciously, because the
work which they are required to per-
form is exceedingly heavy and very
variable. For instance, in warping a
ship out of dock the load may increase
suddenly from normal to three or four
times its proper value, in which case
the motor might be forcibly brought
to a standstill with the current still on
it and thus be badly damaged. At the
best it would be automatically cut out
of circuit, with results which can be
easily imagined. One method of over-
coming this difficulty is to use a series-
wound motor running at constant
speed and by the aid of automatic
switches resistances are inserted or cut
out. These resistances are put in
series with the armature and allow
only the maximum safe current to
pass, and this is sufficient to keep the
strain on the capstan head. An essen-
tially naval application is the rotation

ELECTRICITY ON SHIPBOARD

257

of the barbettes for the big guns on
board' a battleship. This is effected
by means of shunt-wound motors con-
nected to their load by worm and spur
gearing. It is best to insert a friction
clutch at some point in the gear train
in order to prevent shock to the motor,
etc., by the sudden impact of heavy
gun fire.

The principal water-tight doors on
board liners and battleships are invari-
ably electrically operated. This is done
by means of compound wound motors
driving through worm and spur gear-
ing. When the door is fully closed,
an automatic arrangement lights a
signal lamp in the "emergency sta-
tion," which is the part of the ship
from which these doors are controlled.
There is a switch at each door by
means of which the door can be
opened from either side. There is also
another switch fitted which automatic-
ally stops the motor when the door is
fully closed or if it meets with any ob-
struction. In the latter case the door
continues its journey as soon as the
obstruction is removed. In a case of
emergency it is possible by closing one
switch in the "emergency station" to
close every door in the ship. This is
done by spring-driven gearing, which
operates the switches at the various
doors at intervals of about three sec-
onds. Thus, without throwing too
heavy a strain on the generating plant,
it is possible to close, say, twenty

doors in a minute without more than
six motors running together.

These are the principal applications
of electricity on board ship. Others
of less frequent occurrences are the
driving of forced-draught fans, ven-
tilating fans, pumps, etc. Heating,
cooking, bells, telephones, wireless
telegraphy, are also applications of the
electric current. In the case of forced-
draught fans the motor is coupled di-
rectly to the fan ; ventilating fans are
connected in the same way, and are of
all sizes, 6, 9, 12, 18, 24 being the most
common. Pumps are either three-
throw ram or centrifugal. The former
are driven through spur gearing, the
latter are direct connected to the mo-
tor. Bells and telephones are gener-
ally operated by secondary cells, the
telephones being of a special loud-
speaking pattern. Wireless telegraphy
is carried out by one of the numerous
systems now in vogue, the Marconi
system being, I believe, the most gen-
eral. The aerials consist of two paral-
lel wires suspended between the masts,
conductors leading from them to the
operating house, which is situated gen-
erally on the bridge deck amidships.

These are about all the applications
of electricity on board ship at the pres-
ent time ; but if one considers that this
has been achieved in a little over thirty
years, it seems that in the near future
electricity will reign supreme on board
ship.

STEEL SHEET PILING

By J. F. Springer

II. MODERN FORMS OF BUILT-UP AND ROLLED SHEET PILES.
In the last issue of this magazine Mr. Springer reviewed the development of sheet piling, discussing
the various designs of timber sheeting and the intermediate forms using cast-iron piles for coffer-dams
and similar work. The present article examines the latest types of steel piling of interlocking forms,
including built-up piles, rolled shapes and mixed forms, with numerous examples of effective appli-
cations of this useful aid to the engineer, architect and contractor. — The Editor.

BUILT-UP SHEET PILES.

THE first inception of an inter-
locking sheet piling formed of
I-beams alternating with box
members fabricated from channel
bars was probably due to Simon in
Germany. This idea was taken up
by Geo. W. Jackson (Geo. W. Jack-
son, Inc., Chicago,) in this country,
and applied to a very difficult piece
of work in Chicago. Aside from the
driving of some steel sheet piles for
experimental purposes, this steel
sheeting driven to form a cofferdam
in the Chicago River in connection
with the construction of the Ran-
dolph Street Bridge, was the first
actual application of the steel sheet
pile in the United States. This was
in 1 90 1. This was by no means the
first case where metallic piling was
used in cofferdam construction. Thus
we have seen in a former portion of
this article cast iron sheeting was
used in England for cofferdams in
the early part of the nineteenth
century. But in none of these
structures, apparently, was the depth
of water great. Thus a style of
sheeting effecting a reasonable seal-
ing against water at a depth of, say,
twelve or fifteen feet might be totally
inadequate at thirty feet. The lateral
pressure at fifteen feet is about 937
pounds per square foot, while at
thirty feet it is, of course, about
1,874 pounds. This latter pressure
is more than 12 pounds per square
inch, and, of course, has a very
penetrating effect upon the joints of
sheet piling. However, the Jackson

258

sheeting proved its entire servicea-
bility in thirty feet of water. It
should be remembered that this ac-
complishment was in connection with
temporary construction where grout
or concrete or other permanent seal
was not employed. Indeed, it is
ordinarily sufficient to fill the box
members of the Jackson piling with
clay.

In Fig. 1 we have represented a
corner of the first of the two steel
cofferdams built to enable the piers
for the Randolph Street Bridge to be
constructed. A building known as
the Linn Block was but eighteen
inches distant from the wall of the
cofferdam. This building had been
damaged by fire some years pre-
viously. It was thought imprac-
ticable to drive piles with safety in
the immediate vicinity of this struc-
ture. And yet it was done without
inconveniencing 200 employees at
work within it. The cofferdams had
to be of a size to accommodate a
pier 73 X 80 feet. The I-beams
were 18 inches wide and weighed 55
pounds per linear foot. The channels
were 15 inches wide and weighed 33
pounds per foot. The lengths used
are said to have been 40 feet long.
As the depth of water was 30 feet,
and the figure seems to show about
3 feet of sheeting above the level, we
may conclude that actual penetration
into the soil was a matter of about 7
feet. In order to effect the turn
shown in the view, two I-beams were
riveted together forming a T. It
is said that the Linn Block • is in

SHEET PILING

259

-RANDOLPH STREET BRIDGE, CHICAGO.

OF CORNER WITH JACKSON SHEET PILING

better condition now than before.
This emphasizes the fact, which
every now and again crops up, that
the driving of steel sheeting is a
much less violent piece of work than
is the case with wooden sheet piles.

The Chicago River at the site of
the Randolph Street Bridge makes
a sharp turn from the East to the
South. It will readily be seen that
tugs in bringing their tows around
this turn, passing from East to
South, would be apt to lose control
with the result that the tows would
swing over toward the west bank.
Here, however, the second pier was
to be constructed. The cofferdam
would then be subject to impacts
from heavily laden boats leaving
Chicago. It is said that in fact this
western cofferdam was struck al-
most hourly, but did hot develop any
leaks. These large and deep coffer-
dams were heavily braced within, as
may be seen by consulting Fig. I.

It was natural, after the success at

Randolph street, that when the Kin-
zie Street Bridge was to be con-
structed, the contractors should turn
to the Jackson piling. In some re-
spects the problem here was more
difficult. Piles 45 feet long were
driven successfully. This was in
connection with the cofferdam built
on the west side of the river. By
filling the box members with clay, the
water was successfully excluded. In
Fig. 2 we have a view of this coffer-
dam while under construction. The
pile-driver mounted pn the float is in
prominent view. In the middle fore-
ground may be seen a corner pile
similar to that in Fig. 1. Here, how-
ever, the one line of sheeting has not
yet been put clown. In Fig. 3 we
have a view taken a month later,
when the cofferdam is about com-
pleted and the bracing is in place.
This view is taken at a point a little
closer up, and does not show the
transverse sheeting on the near end.
The construction of cofferdams is

260

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 2. COFFER DAM AT KINZIE STREET BRIDGE, CHICAGO. JACKSON SHEET STEEL PILING

one of the most important matters
that comes within the scope of an
engineer's duties. Upon the success-
ful execution of this class of work
the possibility of large subaqueous
piers depends. Of course, one may
drive supporting piles, whether
wooden, concrete or steel. But if it
is desired to construct large piers on
a bed-rock footing, the cofferdam and
the pneumatic caisson (which is
really a form of cofferdam) would

seem to present the only means to
attain the end desired. No doubt
bearing piles have often proved quite
as successful as any other mode of
support. It often happens, however,,
that conditions render their use in-
advisable. The bridge engineer is
frequently face to face with the prob-
lem of deciding how he shall solve
the problem of securing adequate
foundations. And when he has de-
cided, the contractor must execute.

SHEET PILING

261

In building a bridge across the
Cumberland River at Nashville,
Tenn., very considerable difficulty
was experienced when the attempt
was actually made to lay bare the
bottom of the river for the purpose
of pier construction. The contract-
ors undertook to construct in the
east channel a large wooden coffer-
dam. The depth of water here was
not so great as was the case in the
cofferdams already referred to as
employed at Chicago. But the soil
was of an uncertain character. The
wooden cofferdam was of the crib
form and had a puddle space 16 feet
in thickness. This was filled in with
sand and gravel from the river bed.
But in spite of the generous thickness
allowed for the puddle, the efforts to
pump out the dam were unsuccessful.
The contractors then drove a double
wall of wooden sheeting consisting of
3 X 10-inch planks. They were
still unable to clear the dam of water.
Two 10-inch and one 6-inch centri-
fugal pumps were used in the effort

to pump out the dam. They were
able, however, to lower the level but
a few feet. This was in the fall.
Upon resumption of work in the
following year — about June — a wall
of Jackson sheeting was driven
around the dam. The box members
were filled with clay, and a few
sacks of earth were placed at inter-
vals along the bottom on the outside.
The cofferdam was then found to be
watertight. The interior was pumped
dry and the concrete placed in posi-
tion for the pier. This steel coffer-
dam was of considerable dimensions
— 62 X 114 feet. The channel bars
were of 12-inch width, and the
I-beams, apparently of the same size.
The lengths used were of 25 feet.
The material through which penetra-
tion was had was gravel, quicksand
and boulders.

In Fig. 4 we have a view of the
completed cofferdam. In the back-
ground may be seen piers and scaf-
folding of a landward end of the
bridge. In Fig. 5 the work of with-

FIG. 3. COFFER DAM CONSTRUCTION WITH JACKSON STEEL SHEET PILING AT KINZIE

STREET BRIDGE

262

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 4. CONSTRUCTION OF THE CUMBERLAND RIVER BRIDGE, AT NASHVILLE, WITH THE

JACKSON SHEET STEEL PILING

drawing the piling is going on. This
brings to mind one of the most not-
able features of steel sheeting. It can
be used again. Consequently, it has
a high salvage value. So that while
the first cost may seem considerable,
we must take into account the fact
that the sheeting is, ordinarily, but
little damaged. And further, as com-
pared with wooden sheeting, it can
be driven with ease. In fact, it can
often be driven in situations where
wooden forms cannot be used at all.
We balance aginst the first cost, then,
two items : ( 1 ) the salvage value,
and (2) the saving in driving. In
the present case at Nashville, we
have the controlling consideration
that wooden sheeting failed to accom-
plish the object in view. It is in-
teresting to learn the reason for the
few sacks of earth that were found
necessary even with the steel sheet-
ing in order to get watertightness.
When the bottom of the river was
laid bare inside the dam, it was
found to be corrugated. Fi°". 6

shows the dam at a time when the
steel sheeting was being withdrawn
and loaded on scow so as to be avail-
able elsewhere on the river.

In a modified form the channel
bars are quite narrow. Their serv-
ice in this type is not so much
to furnish a large element of stiff-
ness, but to supply a secure interlock
and a means of sealing against
water. Spacing irons are not used
here. Instead, a piece of timber is
used both for the purpose of holding
the channels at a proper distance
apart and of effecting a seal against
water. When this style of piling is
used in shaft work, it is put in posi-
tion with the nuts of the bolts on the
interior. Closure against water is se-
cured by tightening up these nuts.
This is a lighter type of sheeting
than the form shown as having been
applied at Chicago and Nashville.
Thus, the channels are 5 inches in
width and weigh but 61/; pounds per
linear foot ; and the I-beams are 9
inches wide and weigh 21 pounds per

SHEET PILING

263

FIG. 5. JACKSON SHEET PILING WORK, AT NASHVILLE, WITHDRAWING PILES AFTER USE

foot. Assembled, the sheeting weighs
33 pounds per square foot. As an
example of the use of this form may
be cited a shaft at Washburne and
Blue Island avenues, Chicago. This
shaft is 40 feet deep and 12 feet in
diameter. Two sections of piling
were used, but absolutely no bracing.
One ring of sheeting was driven in-
side the other. There are, in all, four
such shafts, all of them constructed

for the Department of Public Works,
Chicago. The adaptability of such
piling for circular shafts will readily
be granted when we consider that the
curvature may be secured by suitably
bending the I-beams alone.

We may note another example of
the heavy sheeting used for a circu-
lar shaft. This shaft is 22 feet in
diameter. The piling was used in 50-
foot lengths to act as a retaining wall

264

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

against quicksand and clay. The en-
tire shaft is 147 feet deep and con-
nects the surface with the Southwest
Land Tunnel, Chicago. This tunnel
lies 140 feet below the surface and
extends from a point a quarter of a
mile back from the shore out two
miles beneath the waters of Lake
Michigan. The channels used for the
sheet piling were 12 inches in width.
Steel shields were employed for the
remainder of the shaft which passes

ing strata. Six such pieces were em-
ployed. They act, no doubt, as land
ties in the clay stratum. This large
circle — about 69 feet in circumfer-
ence— maintains its form without the
assistance of braces. It is located at
Seventy-third street and Bond ave-
nue. In this mode of construction
the sheeting is first driven. The in-
terior may then be excavated. It is
not necessary that the circle of piling
be driven as a whole. Thus, in

FIG. 6. CONSTRUCTION WITH JACKSON STEEL SHEET PILING AT NASHVILLE. REMOVING

THE PILING FOR USE ELSEWHERE

through a stratum of limestone. As
the piling was put in as permanent
construction, a cement grout was
used to effect a seal against the water
and sand. It is said to be absolutely
watertight. A special feature to be
noted in this circular wall of piling is
the use of auxiliary I-beams at in-
tervals. These have each one of its
flanges secured to the web of an I-
beam in the wall of sheeting, and
extends outward into the surround-

driving the piles at this shaft, part of
them were sunk to position with
others at a considerably less advanced
stage of penetration.

There is a still lighter form of
Jackson piling. Except for certain
clamps, this sheeting consists entirely
of I-beams. For temporary work
where the service is light, this form
seems to be a very admirable one.
This type formed part of a cofferdam
used in the construction of a very

SHEET PILING

265

large building in Chicago. This
structure — the Steele- Vv'edeles Build-
ing— was being constructed along the
river front. The river at this point
has a minimum depth of about 22
feet. A railroad in perpetual use
was located at the other end of the
site. Upon one side was a large
warehouse and on the other the steel
structure of the viaduct approach to
one end of the Dearborn street
bridge. The construction of any
large building upon a site surrounded
with such difficulties is somewhat of
an undertaking. But it was necessary
here to carry the sub-basement down
a distance of five stories in order to be
able to make proper connections with
the system of tunnels of the Illinois
Tunnel Co. To meet the engineer-
ing difficulties, it was decided to em-
ploy the open cofferdam construction.
The dimensions of the steel coffer-
dam thus driven were 40 and 132
feet. The length of the piling was
45 feet. As the sheeting weighed 34
pounds per square foot, including the
locking clips, we have for the entire
weight in the cofferdam proper about
260 short tons. The I-beams used
were 12 inches in width.

The method of securing the beams
together is as follows : For any pair
of adjacent flanges a single pair of
clips is used at the top and a single
pair at the bottom. Both members of
the lower pair are secured to the pile
driven subsequently to the other.
Both members of the upper pair are
secured to this latter. As these clips
are of forged steel and are bolted on,
a very effective interlock is secured.
In driving, the I-beam last in place
may have its double clip at the top
already bolted on before another I-
beam is driven. This last may, ac-
cordingly, be started with the inner
flange in engagement with the double
clip. When the lower end of this
pile has gotten well past the double
clip, a pair of clips may be secured to
it in such a way as to clasp the pile
in place. As driving now goes on,
the new pile will be guided to its
proper position.

At the Steele-Wedeles Building
this sheeting was first driven to form
the walls of the cofferdam, when ex-
cavation was proceeded with. Pene-
tration was secured by the use of a
two-ton Vulcan steam hammer. The
soil was quicksand underlaid by a
soft blue clay. As penetration con-
tinued, however, the clay became
stirrer until a stratum of hardpan was
reached. This wall of piling was left
in the ground. It is estimated that
the sheeting itself cost about 40
cents per square foot. The expense
of driving amounted to something
over 2 cents per square foot. When
the excavation was carried out an
opportunity was afforded of noticing
whether alignment had been main-
tained. It was found that it had.

A great advantage of the Jackson
forms of sheet-piles is the fact that
they are all fabricated from standard
architectural shapes. By paying a
royalty the material may be pur-
chased in the open market and the
piling made and used. Or it may
be bought direct. And in either case
the piling has a large salvage value
when used for temporary construc-
tion, as it is usable for ordinary
structural purposes after being with-
drawn from the soil.

THE INTERLOCKING CHANNEL BAR
PILING.

The form invented by Simon in
Germany for use at the mines of the
New Hope Company, and later on
taken up by Jackson in this country
and certain other forms controlled
by the Geo. Jackson Company, have
not been the only types of steel sheet-
ing fabricated from structural shapes
which have been developed and suc-
cessfully introduced into engineering
practice. The Carnegie Steel Com-
pany controls two types of fabricated
sheeting. In all the forms which we
have heretofore been considering the
I-beam has been a vital element. But
in the two Carnegie styles the I-beam
has no place. The channel bar and
the Z-bar are the only shapes which
enter. In the one form every alter-

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. I. SEA- WALL AT FORT PHILIP. CARNEGIE

SHEET STEEL PILING

nate member of a wall of sheet-
ing is a simple unaltered channel bar.
The remaining alternate members are
also channel bars, but ones to which
Z-bars have been riveted. That is,
two Z-bars have, each, one of its
flanges riveted to the face of the web
within the channel in such way as to
form at either side of the channel
bar an interlocking space suited to
receive and retain a flange of a re-
versed and adjacent channel bar. It
will be observed that the form of the
interlock is such as not to permit
withdrawal except in a vertical di-
rection. If there is a bulging action
of the soil upon a wall of sheeting
of this type, the interlock must ac-
tually be broken to permit the escape
of an actual member. In the second
style of channel bar piling the inter-
lock is still stronger. Here two
channel-bar flanges are clasped be-
tween a pair of Z-bars. This ar-
rangement is secured simply by re-
placing the unaltered channel bars of
the first type by members identical
with those formed of a channel bar
with two Z-bars riveted to it. In
other words — in the second form of
channel-bar sheeting all the members
are precisely alike. However, it may
seem unnecessary to extend the Z-
bars the full length of the alternate
members. In this case — which is the

usual one — the statement that all
members are precisely the same
would need modification. When it
is desired to turn a corner with
either style of piling it is only neces-
sary to cut one of the members in
two longitudinally and then re-unite
them at the desired angle by means
of an angle bar.

It will be observed that a wall con-
structed of interlocking channel bar
piling will have a fluted appearance.
A little consideration will convince
one that this form of wall is one of
considerable stiffness. That the joints
are fairly watertight will, perhaps, be
readily granted, although there is no
distinct provision for the use of a
seal of clay or other similar material.

But that leakage is not large, apart
from any especial sealing, even with
a rather considerable head of water,
may be gathered from the success-
ful use in a cofferdam employed in
the construction of the Kinzie Street
Bridge at Chicago. It will be re-
membered that one of the Jackson
types was also used in cofferdam

FIG. 8.-

-PILE DRIVER SETTING, CARNEGIE SHEET
PILES

SHEET PILING

267

FIG. 9. HAMILTON-PIERCE HAMMER, DRIVING STEEL SHEET PILING AT MUNICIPAL BUILDING,

NEW YORK CITY

work in connection with the same
bridge. Here a large cofferdam was
constructed of the simpler form of
channel-bar sheeting known by the
trade name of the Friestedt Inter-
locking Channel Bar Piling. The
sheeting used had all been em-
ployed six or seven times previously.
Nevertheless, the sealing against
water was so complete that a 3-inch

centrifugal pump working about 8 or
9 per cent of the time was competent
to keep the cofferdam clear. The
second type of channel-bar sheeting,
known by the trade name of the
Symmetrical Interlock Channel Bar
Piling, was employed in a coffer-
dam at Pittsburg, where the depth
of water at the site was 30 feet, and
where, consequently, a leakage pres-

268

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

sure of 13 pounds per square inch
had to be guarded against. Of
course, this same pressure was also
operative against the piling consid-
ered as a wall. These appear to be
the reasons for the selection of the
second form rather than the first.

We have already seen that the
press of conditions in sinking a min-
ing shaft in Germany led to the in-
vention and successful use of a type
of steel sheet-piling. Similar condi-
tions in the United States were like-
wise conquered by the employment of
the Friestedt piles. The Robert Gage
Coal Company desired to sink a ver-
tical shaft near Auburn, Mich. Pro-
ceeding in the usual way, those in
charge of the work successfully pene-
trated a 50-foot stratum of clay. Be-
neath this was a thick layer of gravel
and sand. This yielded water in very
considerable quantities. No difficulty
seems to have been experienced in
taking care of this water. But so
much solid material would come
away with it that the overlying
stratum became insufficiently sup-
ported. Upon its collapse the tim-
bering was broken and the align-
ment of the shaft lost. This was
the first attempt. Two others like-
wise failed, the three having cost, as
Mr. Coryell, the vice-president, says,
upwards of $75,000. It was then de-
termined to make a fourth attempt
with steel sheeting. The clay stratum
and about 10 feet of the sand were
penetrated by usual methods. At the
bottom of this excavation — 60 feet
below the suface — the steel piles were
now driven in 20-foot lengths to and
into the underlying slate rock. The
penetration into the slate amounted
to about 13/2 feet and thus effected a
good bottom joint. The piling could
not well be driven in 20-foot units,
so sections of 5 and 10 feet were em-
ployed. These were arranged with a
view of breaking horizontal joints.
The joints themselves were made
watertight by interposing a strip of
copper. A plate would be bolted on
to secure the two sections together.
The reason the full lensrth could not

at once be driven was because of the
obstruction of the timbering. When
the circuit was complete, the coffer-
dam was excavated. As the material
within was taken away, the rectangu-
lar walls were braced by timbers.
The size of this shaft was 7 x 14 feet
in the clear. To drive the piles hav-
ing their heads so far below the sur-
face, a drilling machine was em-
ployed to operate a jerk-line to which
was secured a 1600-pound hammer.
Special means were adopted to di-
rect the hammer. These consisted of
sheaves and a sheet steel pipe

This example from the Engineer-
ing News is chiefly valuable as con-
firmatory of the German experiences
that it is possible to pass successfully
an underlying water-bearing stratum.
In the present case this stratum was
at a very considerable depth. We
are not informed as to whether the
water was under a hydrostatic head
reaching up towards the general sur-
face, and so are unable to judge of
the lateral thrust against the steel
wall. However, this is a matter for
which provision can be made in any
particular case by using a suitable
weight of sheeting and employing an
adequate system of bracing. The
head could, of course, be predeter-
mined by drilling.

THE ROLLED FORMS.

The dependence of our present ma-
terial civilization upon the rolling
mill is very marked. Rails, struc-
ural shapes, plates, bars both round
and not — all are the product of this
device. Apart from casting, it seems
to be the only practical method of
producing such steel forms in large
quantities at an economic price. And
it is doubtful whether the process of
casting could be brought to show the
same economic advantage. But the
objection that cast steel does not have
the same tensile and shearing resist-
ance is sufficient to retard its em-
ployment in the large production of
fundamental forms. In fact, the roll-
ing mill is here supreme, and prom-
ises to remain so for some time yet.

SHEET PILING

269

Now these considerations have had
their effect in the development of
metallic sheet piling. The cast iron
sheet pile has probably had its last
large installation. Besides, it never
did seriously threaten wood sheeting.
No sheeting can now hope for ex-
tensive adoption that does not admit
of more or less direct production by
the rolling mill. The fabricated

when it leaves the mill has, in the
very nature of the case, no protuber-
ances on the surface to interfere with
the driving operation. Now, of
course, one might easily exaggerate
the importance of these considera-
tions. But, whatever their exact
value, these advantages have a real
existence. Their weight belongs upon
the side of the rolled pile. Over

FIG. 10.- — UNITED STATES STEEL SHEET PILING WORK AT THE PLANT OP THE SOUTHERN
WISCONSIN POWER COMPANY, KILBOURN, WIS.

forms, such as the Jackson and Frie-
stedt pilings, are built up from roll-
ing mill products. So are such types
as the corrugated sheeting. But in-
ventors have, by no means, been con-
tent thus to use the rolling mill in an
indirect way. They have sought to
produce a piling that would be com-
plete when it left the rolls. There is
one cardinal advantage in piles pro-
duced thus. They are absolutely free
from bolt and rivet heads. There is
thus no danger of parts being
stripped off or the connection be-
coming weakened through corrosion.
Further, the piling which is finished

against them, we should have to con-
sider, no doubt, whether they have
been gained at the sacrifice of other
qualities more valuable still.

Three types of rolled sheet-piles
have been developed in America.
These are the United States Sheet
Pile, the Lackawanna Steel Sheet
Piling and the Jones & Laughlin
Steel Sheet Piling. In the case of
every one of these, the piling is ab-
solutely complete when it comes
from the rolls. The oldest form is
the first named. There have been
other types designed, but apparently
the very first pile to be actually rolled

270

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

was of the Behrend form. This is
the United States pile. But while
this design was patented in 1899, it
was not successfully rolled through
the mill until 1904— five years later.
In fact, an especial method of rolling
had, apparently, to be developed be-
fore actual execution of the design
could take place.

Its essentials are a web having at
one side two flanges arranged to
form a kind of clasp and a pair of
small flange-like projects upon the
other side. When, in assembling
such piling, the clasp-like flanges en-
velop the others, a positive interlock
is formed, permitting the removal of
one pile from the other by a vertical
movement. Further, a space is left
in the interlock suited to the recep-
tion of some sealing material as
wood, clay, cement, grout, or the like.

But to roll this section proved a
formidable proposition. This seems
to have chiefly concerned the develop-
ment of sufficient material in the two
flanges to form the clasp or of the
development of it at a suitable angle
to the web. However, through the
ingenuity of an inventor by the name
of Slick, the rolling mill difficulties
were ultimately overcome.

One of the most important uses to
which metallic sheeting has been put
is in connection with the formation
of curtain or core walls for dams and
the like. The Behrend piling was
employed by the United States gov-
ernment for the core of a levee pro-
tecting Fort St. Philip in southern
Louisiana from the waters of the
Gulf of Mexico. Because of the
possibilities of high water occasion-
nally, it seemed desirable to extend

FIG. 11. UNITED STATES SHEET PILING BEING DRIVEN BY ARNOTT STEAM PILE HAMMER, TO

FORM OPEN CAISSONS. UNION IRON WORKS, HOBOKEN

SHEET PILING

271

FIG. 12.- — COFFERDAM CONSTRUCTION FOR POPE BUILDING, CLEVELAND, OHIO.
UNITED STATES SHEET PILING

the bulwark of the levee upwards in
the form of a reinforced concrete
sea wall. The steel piling when in-
stalled was used in such lengths that,
with sufficient penetration for the
purposes of the core wall, the upper
ends would form a kind of steel
fence four or five feet high. This
was used as a central core for the
concrete wall.

Of course, the use of steel sheeting
for such work is not limited to a par-
ticular form. Undoubtedly, there will
be a considerable use of steel sheet-
piles in levee construction and re-
pair.

The function of the sheeting in the
body of a levee is quite important.
Its office is to prevent the formation
of lines of seepage. A current of
water once started may quickly en-
large its passage and so lead to the
ultimate collapse of the entire work.
Some of us, no doubt, remember the
old story of the little boy in Holland
who once when alone discovered that
the sea had penetrated one of the
dvkes bv a small hole. Alive to the

instant danger, he closed the hole with
his arm and made a hero of himself
through his presence of mind. Well,
the steel sheeting in a levee is the
Holland hero ever on the spot. It
prevents the initial formation of a
hole penetrating the body of the levee
transversely. In some sections of
the country, such a hole might be
actually constructed by a burrowing
animal. The wall of steel effectually
intervenes and either entirely pre-
vents the hole being constructed or
limits its size. But a very serious
question enters here. How shall we
prevent the destruction of the steel
sheeting through corrosion? It is of
but little use to construct a curtain
wall which will soon rust out. We
have, then, to prevent this action. We
might think to envelop the piling in
a more or less thick coating of thick
concrete. But the difficulty of form-
ing this is in its way. It has been
proposed to cover merely the upper
portion of such a wall with concrete.
The reason for the possibility of this
limitation is the principle, which has

272

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 13. ARNOTT STEAM PILE HAMMER SUSPENDED FROM DERRICK FOR DRIVING STEEL SHEET

PILING. UNION IRON WORKS, HOBOKEN

been pretty well determined, that it is
ordinarily necessary for both water
and air to be present to effect cor-
rosion. If steel is immersed in quiet
water, the only source of air is that
which has been trapped by the water.
At a not very considerable depth, the
amount of this is nil or at least neg-
ligible. Now in levee, and other con-
struction, the excavation front and
back of a curtain wall might be very
practicable for a moderate depth. So
that a cap of concrete may often be
placed economically upon the upper
portion. The lower section of the

wall would depend upon the absence
of air for its preservation. The
heavier varieties of steel sheeting
would appear very suitable for use in
the formation of such curtain walls
in levees and under dams and the
like. Sheet piling would seem quite
adaptable to the construction of core
walls of concrete. If conditions of
penetration are such that thin sheet-
ing can be used, an economical
method appears to be to drive a
double line of piling and excavate
between. The space could then be
filled with concrete. With a substan-

SHEET PILING

273

tial wall of concrete, it would be a
matter of indifference whether the
steel corroded or not.

But let us return to the considera-
tion of the specially rolled pile known
as the United States sheeting. The
appearance of a wall formed of this
type of piling is quite flat and smooth.
This is well shown in Fig. 10, where
a dam is being constructed for the
Southern Wisconsin Power Company
at Kilbourn, Wis. This company em-
ployed 176 tons of the heaviest weight,
in lengths varying from 15 to 40 feet.
The soil penetrated seems to have
been mostly sand, so that the condi-
tions were probably not severe. With
the use of a 2000-pound drop ham-
mer, penetration was accomplished at
about 10 cents per foot.

In New York City the frequent
presence of quicksand on the build-
ing sites of lower Manhattan se-
riously complicates foundation prob-
lems. Not only must the quicksand
be penetrated, but surrounding build-
ings must be preserved from settle-
ment. This has led to the common
use of the pneumatic caisson. It
would seem that other cities are not
necessarily exempt from similar dif-
ficulties as those experienced in lower
New York. For, in constructing the
Pope Building in Cleveland, Ohio, a
thick bed of quicksand was met. For
some reason the use of compressed
air was deemed inadvisable. In or-
der to overcome the conditions, a
retaining wall of sheet piling was
put down, enclosing the whole area
of excavation. The 35-pound weight
was used, the driving being accom-
plished with steam and drop ham-
mers. The feet of the piles were
well sealed in four feet of clay.
Above this were 27 feet of quicksand
and 4 feet of sand and water. There
was thus a hydrostatic head of 31
feet. The cofferdam is said to have
been practically watertight. Just what
means, if any were used to seal the
sheeting, the writer is not aware.
The interior of this cofferdam is
shown in our illustration. It would
seem that the presence of the stratum

3-6

of clay contributed largely to the
success here.

Mention has already been made of
the deviation in alignment possible
with the unaltered forms of this
piling. Indeed, with the 6-inch sec-
tion, a variation of about 24 degrees
is possible, and with the 35-pound
weight of the 12-inch size about the
same. With the 40-pound, 12-inch
size, the angle of deviation is about
18 degrees. It will be seen from the
facts that cofferdams, pump wells,
foundation pits and the like can be
constructed in circular form without
modification of the piling. Pretty
much all styles of steel sheeting ad-
mit of some angular deviation, and so
could be used when the circle is very
large. The advantage of a large pos-
sible variation becomes evident when
the circle is quite small. The Balti-
more, Chesapeake & Atlantic Railway
constructed a permanent circular shell
for a bridge pier at Ocean City, Md.,
whose diameter was but 18 1-3 feet.
The 6-inch, 11-pound form was used,
but the heaviest might have been.
This shell is 25 feet deep and has
served the purpose of a mold for the
concrete. It is now performing the
additional duty of a protective cov-
ering against the action of the ocean.

One great advantage in the use of
steel sheeting in the construction of
dams and the like consists in the
fact that it may be installed without
excavation. An example of such use
of steel piles is the dam for the Pon-
dera Canal at Heins Coulee, Mon-
tana. Here it was employed to form
a permanent core wall at the deepest
point of the dam and was driven to
rock. Concrete masonry overlies it.
Reliance is thus put upon this dia-
phragm of steel for an indefinite
time.

Attention has already been called
to difficulties which arise in founda-
tion work in cities where qucksand
may have to be dealt with. These
difficulties relate largely to the preser-
vation of neighboring buildings. Now
this same duty may arise in connec-
tion with clav. Thus, in construct-

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. li. LACKAWANNA ROLLED SHEET PILES IN YARD.

FIG. 15. TRENCH CONSTRUCTION WITH LACKAWANNA ROLLED SHEET PILES

SHEET PILING

275

FIG. 16. COFFERDAM WITH STEEL SHEET PILING AT BLACK ROCK HARBOUR

ing the foundations for the New
Brevoort Hotel, Chicago, it was
feared that if excavations of five-foot
sections were made through the clay
and then lined with wooden lagging,
the material might slip during its un-
supported period and thus endanger
structures beyond the site. To meet
this condition small cofferdams of
sheet piling were driven to a depth
of 30 feet, thus passing the clay.
These cofferdams were 5 feet in di-
ameter. The clay would be excavated
and the mold thus left filled with con-
crete. This application was one of
the first to which this rolled piling
was put.

The Lackawanna Steel Sheet Piling
is another rolled form developed in
America. The form of its cross-sec-
tion will be seen in the illustrations. It
will be seen that this is symmetrical
as to right and left, but not as to
front and back. The two flanges
which go to form the clasp at each
side of a pile are not at all alike.
The result is a rather peculiar form.

When assembled in a wall, the piles
are alternately reversed as to front
and back. The interlock resists re-
moval except in the vertical direction.
It will be observed that an angular
deviation of the alignment is pos-
sible. With the heaviest section, this
deviaton may be 22 degrees. A com-
plete crcle may be constructed with a
diameter as small as six feet. With
the smallest section, the permissible
deviation is less, being 18 degrees,
but the reduced width more than
compensates for this, so that a circle
of less than 4^ feet in diameter may
be constructed. In one of the figures
showing the first shipment of this
piling, the section is well seen. This
shipment was made only about two
years ago, so that it will be under-
stood that the form is commercially
a new one.

However, this sheeting has already
been employed in a very important
piece of construction by the United
States government. A large concrete
lock was to be constructed at Black

276

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Rock Harbor. In order to lay bare
the site, it was determined to con-
struct a great cofferdam. This struct-
ure was of the double form and had
bulkheads connecting the inner and
outer walls. The whole was thus di-
vided into a considerable number of
compartments. With the exception
of one or two of these compartments
the entire cofferdam was built of this
one style of piling. The amount of
sheeting used here makes it a notable
application. Altogether, about 7,000
tens were used. The cofferdam was
approximately rectangular in plan,
having an external length of about
950 feet and a width of 260 feet.
The piling was driven to bed rock
about 40 feet below the surface of
the water and penetrating soil of
considerable depth, as the water at
the site had a maximum depth of
only about 15 feet. The many com-
partments were filled with clay. It
wiii be seen that where the depth of
water was considerable, the clay con-
tained in the compartments would
exert a very considerable bulging ac-
tion, which would put the interlocks
to a severe test, especially upon re-
moval of the water inside the coffer-
dam. So far as the writer is aware,
the piling has successfully withstood
this tensile strain. In one of the
figures the general appearance inside
the cofferdam is disclosed when the
water level was 29 feet below nor-
mal. The weight of piling used here
was 40 pounds per square foot as-
sembled. That this style of piling
has a very strong interlock would
seem to be indicated by tests of the
interlock in tension. Thus the 12^-
inch section is said to have proved
capable of resisting a tensile stress
in the interlock amounting to about
9,700 pounds per linear inch of pile,
and the 7-inch section a tension of
about 6,500 pounds per linear inch.

In order to turn corners, the mak-
ers recommend the practice of uniting
the two halves of a longitudinally
divided pile by means of an angle
bar or of the one half to the web of
a whole pile by means of two angle

bars. But there seems no good rea-
son why the web itself should not be
longitudinally bent — as in the United
States sheet-pile.

There is a third type of rolled
sheeting — the Jones & Laughlin pil-
ing. This consists of two forms.
There is the section which constitutes
the bulk of the wall surface. This is
identical with the ordinary I-beam.
Alternating with these are locking
bars which are used to hold adjacent
I-beams together. This is also a rolled
shape. This type of piling agrees
with the two last described in being
a finished product when it comes
from the rolls. It differs in the cir-
cumstance that- two distinct units are
employed. One unit consists of the
I-beam and the other of -the locking
bar.

There is a strong economic advan-
tage which this piling possesses in
cases where its use is purely tem-
porary. The I-beams are standard
structural shapes and therefore have
a high salvage value. The locking
bars may have to be sold as scrap.
But they constitute but a fraction of
the weight of the sheeting as a whole.

It will be observed that deviations
in rectilinear alignment cannot be
made at the interlock. They may be
made, however, in the web of the
I-beam. This rigidity of the inter-
lock is, in some respects, a decided
advantage. For it enables the align-
ment of the new pile to be secured
from the interlock with the locking
bar of the pile last driven. In
driving, I-beam and lock bar are han-
dled as a unit. The two are shipped
-ifTThis way and so are already as-
sembled. The locking bar is made a
couple of inches longer than the
I-beam. This excess permits ham-
mering clown of the clips at each end
and thus securing the I-beam. When
actual driving begins, the first blow
or two brings the upper ends flush
with each other.

As to watertightness, dependence
must be put upon the closeness and
extent of the joints. For many cases
of temporary construction the sheet-

SHEET PILING

277

FIG. 17. BRONX VALLEY SEWER, NEW YORK, SHOWING % SHEETING IN SAND AND GRAVEL. THE

SAME SHEETING WAS USED AND REUSED DURING TWO YEARS.
WEMLINGER STEEL PILING COMPANY

;ng in the present form is, no doubt,
sufficiently impermeable. For severe
conditions, where it is desired to have
an absolutely perfect and permanent
joint, some modification may seem
necessary. The piling is just coming
onto the market and has, conse-
quently, had but little time to demon-
strate itself. The patent covering the
form was only recently (Oct. 13,
1908) issued. But the invention it-
self dates a number of years further
back. Five sizes are now obtainable.
These are made "up from 12-inch and
15-inch I-beams with web thicknesses
varying from 0.344 inch to 0.500
inch. The depth of the I-beams
varies with each size of sheeting,
ranging from 3.940 inches to 4.870
inches. The extreme dimension of
the locking bar has but two values, 5
and 6 inches, corresponding to the
widths of the I-beams. The weights

per square foot of assembled sheet-
ing run from 35 to 4254 pounds.

Recently about 170 short tons of
this piling were driven to form the
core wall of an irrigation dam in
Idaho. 15-inch I-beams and special
7-inch locking bars were employed.
Through the courtesy of the J. G.
White Company, the contractors, it is
possible to give some details. About
twenty miles to the north of Sho-
shone, where the Big Wood River
passes through a canyon, the distance
from wall to wall is comparatively
narrow. Here it was decided to lo-
cate the Magic Reservoir dam. This
structure is to have a width of 400
feet at the crest and a maximum
depth of 135 feet, and to be of the
earth-and-rock-fill type. In order to
prevent or restrict seepage beneath
the clam, it was determined to drive a
wall of steel sheetinsr to bed rock.

278

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

The maximum depth to which it has
been found necessary to drive the
piling was 30 feet. As the piles are
35 feet long, this leaves a wall for
projection into the fill of the dam of
a maximum height of 5 feet. The
total length of the piles used
amounted to 6184 feet. The weight
was 339,754 lb. These items give, on
the assumption that I-beams and lock-
ing bar combined have a width of
15.25 inches, a weight per square
foot of about 43/4 pounds. As the
standard form with 6-inch locking
bar and 15-inch I-beam with J^-inch
web weighs 42*4 pounds per square
feet, it is judged that the web of the
I-beams used at the dam is Yi inch
in thickness.

In driving this piling, considerable
difficulty was experienced. The
gravel being penetrated was of such
a character that frequently it was
not easy to get the piles down with-
out bending them. This bending ac-
tion would take place just beneath
the driving cap. It would thus seem
that the 15-inch I-beam with 3^2 -inch
web was not sufficiently stiff for the
conditions. In the light of this ex-
perience it might seem desirable upon
a similar occasion to use a narrower
12-inch I-beam with deep flanges and
heavy web. A further difficulty ex-
perienced was in connection with the
maintenance of verticality. Jacks and
braces were employed and were
found of assistance. This experience,
attributed to the coarseness of the
gravel and presence of boulders, does
not seem to have any especial rela-
tion to the particular type of steel
sheeting. In fact, one would rather
expect that the rigidity of the inter-
lock assisted in maintaining vertical-
ity. If this is the case, the trouble
would have been accentuated with
forms where the interlock is more
flexible. Steel sheeting was selected
for this work, partly because it was
thought impracticable to drive wooden
piling to the depth necessary to reach
rock and partly because an equal
tightness of joints was thought im-
possible with wood. Further, it is

judged that the steel core wall may
be expected to have a longer life
than would a wooden one. The steel
sheeting was not found to be abso-
lutely watertight, although the leak-
age is said to have been small.

The driving was accomplished by
means of an 1,800-pound drop ham-
mer. It is thought, however, that a
steam hammer would have been bet-
ter. If maintenance of pile driver be
excluded, the cost of driving the
6,184 feet totalled $2,355.75. This
expense includes labour and material
used in the driving. It is an average
of $0.3809 per linear foot. The
length of this steel core wall is 271
feet. It extends from one side of
the canyon to the other. It will be
remembered, perhaps, that at the
Hodbarrow Mines penetration of
piles two feet broad into every diffi-
cult material was secured with a
peculiar shaped foot. No doubt other
factors entered, but we can hardly
escape the conclusion that the points
of the foot must have been of assist-
ance. It would seem well worth test-
ing then, whether blunt points at the
bottom of such a pile as the Jones &
Laughlin form would not be of de-
cided advantage. The web of the
I-beam could be shaped to the form
of a blunt V at the bottom, and the
same shape could also be given to
the lower ends of the flanges and the
locking bar. The opportunity for
clearance thus provided would seem
of real advantage in promoting pene-
tration.

MIXED FORMS.

We have, so far, been dealing
either with specially rolled forms or
with those fabricated form struct-
ural shapes and plates. There is
still another distinct class of steel
piling. This type is formed from
sheets by the aid of machinery. There
may, perhaps, be a certain amount of
fabrication in addition, as where a
locking strip is riveted on. Promi-
nent among this class is the style of
sheeting known as the Wemlinger
Steel Sheet Piling. There are two

SHEET PILING

279

FIG. 18. FOUNDATIONS OF NATIONAL CITY BANK, NEW YORK CITY. VIEW SHOWING WEMLINGER

CORRUGATED SHEET PILING, AFTER EXCAVATION.

In this case the piling is supporting the entire pressure, due to the weight of a very heavy masonry
wall, about 50 feet high, and a head of 10 feet of water. The dryness of the mud and sand, showing
shovel marks, indicates the absence of leakage of water through the piling. Concrete is being placed
against the steel piling.

principle varieties differing in inter-
locking arrangement and in the con-
sequent mode of assembling the units.
But the basic element in each is the
corrugated strip of steel plate. The
corrugations are longitudinal of
course. The object of their use is to
impart stiffness and strength. It will
be understood at once that such pil-
ing has a large economic advantage,
for the reason that from the multi-
plicity of thicknesses of steel plate
readily obtainable, a corresponding
multiplicity of weights of piling can
be supplied. In other words, an
engineer can economically secure just
the sheeting to meet his particular
conditions. However, it is at present
not made heavier than J^-inch.

Whether this piling is suited for
cofferdams where water under con-

siderable heads is to be excluded
may be doubted. With this excep-
tion it would seem applicable to all
uses within its range of stiffness and
strength.

Now it is upon stiffness that the
capability of driving largely depends.
It would seem that from this point
of view the corrugated sheeting is
one of the best possible types. In
fact, it is claimed to be absolutely
non-buckling. The effects of over-
driving seem to confine themselves
to head and foot. Thus if an im-
passable obstruction — as a large boul-
der— is met, some deformation of the
foot may occur. Or the head may
have its material upset. Any driving
subsequent to refusal may thus be
expected to disclose itself at the head.
The warning is consequently readily

28o

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

observable. The quality of not buck-
ling is of high value, as then the pile
can usually be withdrawn. If severe
buckling occurs, the adjacent portion
of the steel wall already in place
may easily become involved. What
lack of real stiffness may occasion
is discoverable from the experimental
bay of steel sheeting driven at the
Hodbarrow Mines and elsewhere de-
scribed in these articles. The corru-
gated pile has been put under com-
parative test with the ordinary chan-
nel bar. The two pieces were sup-
ported at the ends and loaded in the
middle. The result was considerably
in favor of the corrugated form.
Mr. Wemlinger has made a com-
parison of the minimum radii of
gyration of a corrugated pile and an
ordinary I-beam of the same width of
24 inches. The structural shape was
73/2 inches deep, as compared with
4 inches for the pile, and weighed
four times as much. The thickness
of the web was ^4-inch, four times
that of the piling. Yet the least
radius of gyration of the steel pile
was 1.42 inches, while that corre-
sponding to the shape was about 9%
smaller.

Driving is promoted too by the
small area of the cross-section.
Thus to use the case just before us
as an illustration, the I-beam having
even a less minimum radius of gyra-
tion presents four times the surface
to the soil to be penetrated. All
this would seem to indicate that the
disposition of metal in the corru-
gated pile is of a very superior kind
in so far as driving is concerned.
That the capability of a sheet pile
for driving is no small item may be
illustrated by referring again to the
experience of the Hodbarrow Mines.
It will be remembered that steel
sheeting replaced wooden piling be-
cause the one could be driven and
the other not. If one type of steel
piling is more easily driven than
another, this fact may enable us to
reduce the weight used. In fact, the
question of driving may be para-
mount.

How easy driving may become
with corrugated sheeting may be
understood from the folio vving in-
stance : A steel pipe line, 42 inches
in diameter, was to be laid across an
arm of the lake in Cazenovia Park
at Buffalo, N. Y. It was desired to
use sheet piling for the purpose of
following the cofferdam method of
construction. But the use of ma-
chinery— cableway, derrick or pile-
driver — was not desired. Conse-
quently a very slight form of steel
piling was selected, and the work of
handling and driving accomplished
by hand. The corrugated sheeting
weighed, in fact, but 7}^ pounds per
square foot, thus permitting a man to
handle lengths of 10 or 15 feet.

In the style known as the double-
lock there are five full corrugations,
three convex upon one face, and
two upon the other. Along the sum-
mit of the center one of the three a
longitudinal locking clip is securely
riveted. The sides of this clip en-
velope the corrugation to one-half
its depth. This strip of steel is
shorter than the pile, permitting the
latter to project a little at either end.
Consequently, in driving it is not
subject to the direct action of the
driving hood or of the immediate
reaction of the material being pene-
trated. When assembling this type
of sheeting, the adjacent piles over-
lap two corrugations each, grooves
and corrugations falling into each
other. The overlap is sufficient to
bring the edges of the adjacent piles
well within the interlock. It will
thus be seen that if we include the
locking clip, a ..wall of sheeting thus
constructed will be everywhere
double.

It will be observed that in respect
to watertightness this piling should
be rather effective. The corruga-
tions intermesh with each other and
give a large surface of contact. At
any rate, practice seems to warrant
confidence in a good joint.

Without the interlocking strip a
single pile of the ]/\ inch thickness
and 20 feet long will weigh about

SHEET PILING

281

FIG. 19. SEWER CONSTRUCTION AT WII.KES-BARRE, PA., SHOWING %-INCH STEEL SHEETING,

10 TO 15 FEET LONG, DRIVEN BY HAND OR STEAM HAMMER. WEMLINGER STEEL
PILING COMPANY, NEW YORK.

570 pounds. With the strip and
rivets added, the total weight of such
a pile will amount to, say, 140 pounds
additional, bringing the whole to 710
pounds. This pile is itself 2 feet
wide, and the weight per square foot
of surface covered (40 fee- square)

would be 18 pounds. But when as-
sembled with its companions, it
covers in effect merely a width of 14
inches. In consequence of the over-
lapping arrangement, the weight per
square foot, as estimated by the
makers, is 30 pounds. The 3-16

282

C ASSIER'Si, ;M AG AZINE

FIG. 20. SEWAGE DISPOSAL PLANT AT OCEAN GROVE, NEW JERSEY

Showing %-inch steel sheeting jetted down in beach sand. Eight feet of the sheeting is unsup-
ported, and the dryness of the adhering sand shows the absence of leakage, although the excavation
is below water level.

inch thickness weighs, in place, 23
pounds per square foot, and the 5-16
inch 37 pounds.

Now we can, of course, use as thin
sheets as we wish. The piling in
place will, however, be double. In-
stead of thus using excessively thin

sheets in order to get when doubled
a moderately thin wall for light work,
the contractor can obtain a newer
type where the sheeting is not
doubled. This is the single-lock pil-
ing. The difference in construction
of the two types will become appar-

SHEET PILING

283

ent upon examination of the two
sectional views. The overlap with
the single-lock covers but little more
than a single corrugation at each
side of a pile. Two separate clips
are used. This results in the wall of
sheeting being partly double and
partly single. Two of the five corru-
gations remain uncovered by other
metal.

In Fig. 18 we have an example of
the use of the Wemlinger Corru-
gated Sheeting. The old Custom
House, fronting on Wall street, in
New York City, was acquired by the
National City Bank, one of the very
foremost financial institutions in the
world. This bank' remodelled and
added to the building and thus con-
structed one of the most elegant and
commodious banking houses to be
found anywhere. The piling shown
in the figure is of the type shown in
the sectional view of the double-lock
variety, and was driven to form a
retaining wall in connection with the
operations of reconstructing this im-
portant building. That this piling is
of the double-lock type, and not of
the single-lock, may be understood
by noting that the rows of rivets are
"dternately on the convexity and in
the concavity of the corrugations.
That this circumstance distinguishes
the one style from the other may be
learned by comparing the two sec-
tional views. Returning now to Fig.
18, we may judge somewhat of the
lateral strength of this piling when
we are told that it is here withstand-
ing the horizontal thrust arising from
the pressure of a very heavy masonry
wall of about 50 feet in height.
There is a hydrostatic head of 10
feet, but just how much of this is
effective against the sheeting the
writer does not know. The concrete
which is partly in place is seen at
the bottom. If leakage were occur-
ring it should be taking place along
the interlocking strips in view. The
incrustations of soil still remaining
in just these locations seems to indi-
cate that if any seepage at all has
occurred, it must be very slight.

( To be co

These two types of piling are read-
ily driven and withdrawn, and thus
become very suitable for use in tem-
porary construction. And this is
especially true of sewer construction.
Thus in the Bronx Valley in the
vicinity of New York City, a sewer
13 miles in length has recently been
under construction. Of course, in a
line of this length, conditions would
undergo important changes. Now
the trench would pass up a hill, now
through the woods, now across a
stream, and so on. In Fig. 17 we
have an inside view of the cofferdam
at a point where a stream is being
crossed. There were 9 feet of water
against the exterior, producing at the
bottom a pressure of about 4 pounds
per square inch. This was not the
double-lock style, but a single-lock
variety somewhat similar to that
shown in the sectional view. The
corrugations were 2 inches deep, and
from interlock to interlock was a
distance of 12 inches, containing 6
corrugations. The total length of
cofferdam was about 100 feet. The
form for the bottom of the concrete
sewer is in view together with the
reinforcement.

In driving the double-lock type,
the intermeshing of the corrugations
assists in the preservation of the
alignment. This would seem to be
pretty effective in so far as lateral
deviation is concerned. As to front
and back departures, the pile already
driven is, no doubt, sufficient under
all conditions in the one direction.
In the other, the two clips — one on
each pile — hold the new pile se-
curely. It is scarcely possible that a
separation of the old and new piles
should take place if the weight is
proportionate to the duty. The fore-
going remarks apply to the double-
lock type. With the single-lock va-
riety the case is somewhat different.
But even here the piles are locked in
every direction except the vertical.
And one should not expect of this
light weight style quite the same
security against a forward bulging
action of the excluded material.
ncluded.)

Ti"

(&uxvmt Qopxts

HE records which have been re-
cently made in aviation, both

as to distance and character of
route, are demonstrating that me-
chanical flight has been taken out of
the experimental stage and is en-
tering upon a period of scientific
and commercial development. This
progress has been made almost en-
tirely because of the increased expe-
rience gained in the use of machines
already well known. With the ex-
ception of the cross-Channel flights
of Bleriot and De Lesseps, which
were made with machines of the
monoplane type, the great successes
have been effected with biplane ma-
chines, similar to those with which
the Wright brothers first demon-
strated the possibilities of the aero-
plane.

During the first half of the pres-
ent year there has been seen a de-
velopment in aerial navigation which
is little short of marvelous, espe-
cially when compared with the slow
progress in the early periods of the
history of the steam engine, the
steamship, the locomotive, and even
the automobile. In April Paulhan
made his record overland flight from
London to Manchester, while in the
latter part of May this was followed
by the flight of Curtiss from Albany
to New York. Within a few days

284

Mr. Rolls doubled the Channel cross-
ing, making a distance of 50 miles
within 90 minutes, a feat which
had scarcely been accomplished when
Hamilton flew from New York to
Philadelphia, more than 80 miles,
without a stop, returning the same
day with but a single stop.

These things show that machines
which are much heavier than air can
be caused to rise from the ground to
altitudes from a few hundred to sev-
eral thousand feet, be navigated in
the face of varying air currents,
driven with speed and precision to
definite landing places, and controlled
with comparative ease and certainty.

In his flight between New York
and Philadelphia, Hamilton dropped
a number of imitation bombs with
fair precision, a significant indica-
tion of the military possibilities
already attained, and the extent to
which adverse criticism has been
silenced in this respect may well be
worth consideration.

The practical information obtained
from these flights, apart from the
demonstration of the necessity for in-
dividual skill on the part of the
aviator, bears principally upon the
necessity for improvement of the mo-
tor, especially on the score of reli-
ability. It is reported that Hamilton
used about eleven gallons of gfasoline

CURRENT TOPICS

285

in the flight of about 80 miles be-
tween New York and Philadelphia,
and that about three gallons of lubri-
cating oil were required. The quality
of the latter is most important, and
it is stated that the carbonizing of
the cylinder lubricant and consequent
formation of soot was the cause of the
failure of ignition which required the
descent on his return trip.

In any case the principal demand
at present is not for a lighter mo-
tor— the weight has already been
sufficiently reduced — and it is reli-
ability which must be attained above
all things. Given a thoroughly reli-
able motor, fitted to an aeroplane
capable of carrying two or three per-
sons at speeds of 50 miles an hour
at heights of more than 1,000 feet,
and the practical possibilities of aerial
flight may well demand the most seri-
ous attention of naval and military
authorities, as well as of civilian en-
gineers.

In this connection it is especially
interesting to note that nearly all of
the recent developments have been
elicited as the result of prizes offered

by private individuals or by pub-
lishers of newspapers, and that such
results might well have been attained
earlier had governments been willing
to devote the comparatively small
sums thus expended to this work.

IT has often been said that the real
test of construction comes, not in
the course of daily use, but in
time of emergency, and that the well-
designed structure is that which is
capable of meeting the unexpected
demands which are certain to come
sooner or later. Probably this is
truest in the case of the construction
of a ship. It is when the strain of
grounding, or the blow of a collision,
arrives, that the honesty and sincerity
of the work appears and the sound-
ness of the design is tested.

An interesting example of the re-
sistance which a vessel may encounter
is seen in the case of a collision
which occurred a few months ago in
the early hours of the morning,
off Singapore harbour, between the
steamer La Seyne, of the Messagerie
Maritime, and the steamer Onda, of

THE BOW OF THE ONDA AFTER COLLISION WITH LA SEYNE

286

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

THE TWISTED STEM OF THE ONDA

the British India Steam Navigation
Company. The inquiry which fol-
lowed into the cause of the disaster
showed that the blame probably lay
with La Seym, but as the lookout
man of that vessel was drowned, the
cause of the collision was not abso-
lutely certain.

The illustrations show the bow of
the steamship Onda as she lay in the
dry dock in the Tanjong Pagar har-

bour at Singapore, and these show
very clearly the extent of the dam-
age. It is marvelous that the vessel
did not sink, and the fact that she
remained afloat is a matter of great
credit to her builders. The stem of
the Onda was bent, and her plates
dented, torn and shattered in a man-
ner which could be realized only
upon examination. The photograph
which ^hows the twisted stem reveals

CURRENT TOPICS

287

THE HOLE IN THE CRUSHED BOW OF THE ONDA

also the point at which the bow of La
Seyne entered.

La Seyne was an old boat, having
first seen service at the time of the
opening of the Suez Canal, and she
was so badly damaged by the colli-
sion that she sank in two minutes.
As the accident occurred at four
o'clock in the morning, the passen-
gers were asleep below, and were
drowned like rats in a trap ; but it

speaks highly for the credit of the
officers and crew (Lascars) of the
Onda that her accident boat was in
the water before La Seyne sunk. On
the British-India Line one boat is
always carried swung out on the
davits ready for emergency, and it
was this accident boat which took the
water ready to pick up survivors
within such a short time after the
collision.

SAMUEL PIERPONT LANGLEY

AN APPRECIATION

IF, as recently as ten years ago, any
layman had ventured to assume
that mechanical flight would ever
reach the commercial stage, or that it
would even pass the point where sus-
picion or ridicule necessarily attached
to it, the subject would have been dis-
missed with a jest. Nevertheless,
there was at that time one of the
foremost scientists of the world at
work upon the solution of the prob-
lem, a man who, having attained
great eminence as an astronomer and
physicist, had reached one of the
highest positions open to any scientific
man in any country — the secretary-
ship of the Smithsonian Institution — ■
the head of an establishment founded
in America by an Englishman for
the "increase and diffusion of knowl-
edge among mankind."

Writing in 1897, Professor S. P.
Langley, referring to his researches
and experimental work in mechanical
flight, said :

"I have, thus far, had only a
purely scientific interest in the results
of these labours. Perhaps, if it
could be foreseen at the outset how
much labour there was to be, how
much of life would be given to it,
and how much care, I might have
hesitated to enter upon it at all ; and
now reward must be looked for, if
reward there be, in the knowledge
that I have done the best I could in
a difficult task, with results which, it
may be hoped, will be useful to oth-
ers. I have brought to a close the
portion of the work which seemed
to be specially mine — the demonstra-
tion of the practicability of mechan-
ical flight — and for the next stage,
which is the commercial and prac-
tical development of the idea, it is
probable that the world may look to
others. The world indeed will be

supine if it does not realize that a
new possibility has come to it, and
that the great universal highway
overhead is now soon to be opened."

Professor Langley died in 1906,
and even before his death the world
began to realize that the "great uni-
versal highway" was being opened.
Within a few years after his de-
parture machines based upon the re-
sults of his labours have crossed the
Channel, have flown from London to
Manchester, from Albany to New
York, and from New York to Phila-
delphia.

The work which, before his efforts,
men covered with ridicule is to-day
greeted with the acclamation of sci-
entists, statesmen and rulers, while
leaders in the world of commerce are
striving to command the economic
possibilities which are within imme-
diate grasp. Its rewards are already
computed by the hundreds of thou-
sands, and its results may change
the routes of commerce and the poli-
cies of nations.

Surely it is time to express a few
words of appreciation for the man
who ventured, in the face of opposi-
tion and ridicule, to investigate the
laws governing the internal work ot
the wind and of the sustaining power
of surfaces; who devoted energy,
skill and scientific reputation to the
placing of a problem, hitherto de-
spised and scorned, upon a plane
commensurate with its true impor-
tance, and in a position whence suc-
cess was surely to be obtained.

The present is not the time to dis-
parage the work of Chanute, of
Lilienthal, of the Wrights, of Far-
man, Bleriot, Rolls, Curtiss and
Hamilton ; but it is the time to re-
member the magnificent pioneer
work of Samuel Pierpont Langley.

FERDINAND, GRAF VON ZEPPELIN
See Page 383

INDEX]

Cassier's Magazine

Vol. XXXVIII

AN ENGINEERING MONTHLY

AUGUST, 19 io l!

No. 4

REINFORCED CONCRETE WORK IN NEW ZEALAND

By B. W. Wilson, B. E.

IN few places are the merits of re-
inforced concrete so fully ap-
preciated as in the North of New
Zealand, and in Auckland, the prin-
cipal city, a large proportion of new
construction is being carried out in
this material. The supply of Port-
land cement is abundant from two
excellent factories in the vicinity,
and the Australasian Ferro-Concrete
Company have done a large amount
of work here. In the climate pos-
sessed by this locality, the warm,
damp and highly saline atmosphere
renders the corrosion of iron work
and the speedy degeneration of
painted surfaces serious considera-
tions. For marine work, the ener-
getic depredations of the teredo cause
woodwork to disappear in an unusu-
ally short time, while the scarcity and
comparatively high price of building
stone in Auckland have created a
strong demand for an efficient sub-
stitute. In all these respects ferro-
concrete is a satisfactory answer to
the conditions imposed by Nature.

The most notable work of this ma-
terial is the Grafton Bridge, opened
in March, 1910, across the Cemetery
Gully, situated near the middle of the
city. The gully is a wide and deep
hollow, effectively separating two
populous residential districts, and,
what was a most important point, in-
terposing a serious barrier between

4-1 Copyright, 1910, by The

the Aucklanders and their principal
athletic ground, where the chief
open-air events of the town are held.
A fairly small foot-bridge, low down
in the gully, did duty for a number
of years. It was then condemned as
unsafe, and the ratepayers, by a poll,
decided that a high level roadway
across the gap, at a cost of about
£30,000, was an absolute necessity.
Tenders were accordingly called in,
for a bridge of 920 feet in length and
36 feet in width between parapets.
Two tenders were received, of which
the lower was for a steel structure,
by the American Bridge Company,
costing £28,740. The Ferro-Con-
crete Company also tendered, speci-
fying a viaduct of reinforced con-
crete, costing £31,918 and having a
central span of 320 feet between
abutments, the height being 142 feet
above the bottom of the gully.

This enormous span far exceeded
any that had hitherto been con-
structed, and it was only after care-
ful consideration of the arguments
for and against the design that this
type of bridge was adopted. The
great saving in maintenance in the
latter case and the much more ef-
fect appearance of this design were
the features that decided Mr. Bush,
the City Council's engineer, in favour
of ferro-concrete.

Work was begun in August, 1907

Cassier's Magazine Co.

291

292

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

THE GRAFTON BRIDGE, AUCKLAND, NEW ZEALAND, VIEW FROM EASTERN END.

CENTREING OF THE MAIN ARCH OF THE GRAFTON BRIDGE, CONTAINING 400,000 FEET OF TIMBER

CONCRETE WORK IN NEW ZEALAND

293

■feci

THE GRAFTON ARCH FROM BELOW

and a little over a year and a half
was absorbed in the actual construc-
tion. An extra length of about 40
feet was added to the original design,
on account of negotiations for clos-
ing a blind road ending unsatisfac-
torily.

The arrangement of the various
component spans is as follows, start-
ing from the western, or city end :

One span of 35 feet ;

One span of 37.5 feet;

Four spans of 75.5 feet each ;

One span of 320 feet, between
piers of 18 feet at the top;

One span of 78.5 feet;

One span of 80.5 feet ;

One span of 42 feet.

The approach spans presented no
great difficulty and were completed
first with the two main piers at their
terminations. Straight girders are
used throughout, of solid design in
the case of the three shorter ones,
and of open panel in that of the re-
mainder. The big piers take the
form of hollow pillars, about 100 feet
in height, with walls from 12 inches
to 8 inches in thickness. One wall

Craft on Rootf

T\_\_ 1*2 0 -

-rt
3

- +

r-t-

- +

i
l

i
-r-

Sjmtmds itrtct

294

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

of each is cut away at the base to
accommodate the main abutments.
These contain 720 cubic yards of con-
crete, resting on the rock of mud-
stone underlying the whole town and
carry the cast-steel hinges which sup-
port the main arch.

The great central span is natur-
ally the most interesting portion of
the whole achievement. It is con-
structed in two equal parts, hinged in

and there are 5 secondary beams 1
ft. 8 ins. by 10 ins., parallel with
the length of the bridge, supporting
the deck, of 6 in. ferro-concrete. The
footpaths are carried by cantilevers,
projecting from each transverse
beam, carrying 5.5 ins. of decking.
Cross-bracing connects the three
longest piers in each section, taking
the form of T-beams, spaced about
30 ft. apart.

THE MAIN SPAN OF THE GRAFTON BRIDGE, AUCKLAND

the middle, and is therefore what is
technically known as a "three-hinge
arch." The chief members are the
two parallel ribs, which range from
6 feet by 4 ft. 2 in. at the abutments
to a maximum of 9 ft. 9 in. by 4 ft.
1 in., diminishing to 5 ft. by 4 ft. at
the central hinge. Connecting the
ribs laterally are ties 8 ft. 4 in. by 1
ft. 8 in., spaced at 21 ft. horizontal
centres.

Rising from each half-rib are
seven piers of T section, the cross of
the T being 3 ft. by 6 in. and the re-
maining portion 2 ft. 6 in. by 10 in.
Transverse girders rest upon these,
dimensioned 3 ft. 7 ins. by 10 ins.,

To hold the liquid material of the
main arch while it was setting, a
maze of timbering was erected, con-
sisting of 400,000 superficial feet of
West Australian jarrah and Oregon
pine. A view of the work before
pouring was begun is given, and its
huge size may be gathered by com-
parison with the workmen perched
upon the scaffolding. The height of
the moulds was adjusted most ac-
curately by 160 bottle-jacks, which
performed their work much more ef-
fectively than the sand-boxes more
generally employed. Wedges were
also used to' supplement these, and
also to facilitate the removal of the

CONCRETE WORK IN NEW ZEALAND

295

OLD AND NEW STYLE WHARF CONSTRUCTION AT BIRKENHEAD, AUCKLAND HARfcOUR, NEW ZEALAND

REINFORCED CONCRETE WORK IN AUCKLAND HARBOUR

296

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

WORK OF THE TEREDO ON TIMBER PILES IN AUCKLAND HARBOUR

timbering when its duty was accom-
plished. So carefully was this com-
plicated temporary structure erected,
that the dead load of 3600 tons was
accurately and rigidly supported until
capable of bearing its own weight.

The open panel girders of the ap-
proach spans are 9 ft. deep and 15
ins. wide. There are three parallel
girders in the width of the bridge,
supporting transverse secondary
beams of .6 ins. in width and 2 ft.
6 ins. in-depth at the middle girder,
tapering to 1 ft. 6 ins. at the outer
girders. These are continued to
form cantilevers for bearing the
footpaths. The piers are each com-
posed of two solid vertical pillars 5
ft. by 4 ft., connected at the summit
by a deep transverse beam. Ordi-
nary solid girders 3 ft. 9 ins. by
15 ins. are used in the three short
spans.

Special means had to be adopted
to cope with the expansion of so
great a length due to variations of
temperature. In the main span the
hinges permit of expansion without
displacement of the abutments. On

the city end there is a long stretch
of four spans constructed in one con-
tinuous length. The extremities of
this are supported on steel plates and
are thus free to slide. It is anchored,
however, to the three intermediate
piers, as the middle one will obvi-
ously remain stationary under all or-
dinary circumstances, while the other
two possess sufficient elasticity to
bend the small amount required with-
out possibility of fracture. The
same method is adopted in the case
of the two longer spans at the east-
ern end.

Reinforced concrete parapets, 4 ft.
9 ins. high, flank the top of the
bridge, and 26 cast-iron lamp-posts
rise from these, each containing a
25 candle-power metallic filament
electric lamp, operated by an auto-
matic time switch. The roadway is
paved with Neuchatel asphalt to a
thickness of Jj^ inches.

The final act was the official test-
ing of the completed fabric. It was
considered that the carting of heavy
material over the approach spans had
sufficiently proved their stability and

CONCRETE WORK IN NEW ZEALAND

297

no further trial was demanded of
them. With the central span, a dead
weight of 292 tons of road-metal,
equal to 1 13.5 pounds per square
foot, was imposed on half the arch,
taking about three days to place in
position. This caused a maximum
deflection of only one-eighth of an
inch during the whole time. After
this load had been removed, two road
rollers, of a joint weight of 32 tons,
were driven across and back, causing
a maximum deflection of one-twelfth-
inch in the main arch and of one-
fifteenth-inch in the approaches.
These results may be regarded as
very satisfactory indeed and form a
worthy termination to a work which
reflects great credit upon all con-
cerned. Mr. R. Moore, of the Ferro-
concrete Company, was the designer.
Reference has been made to the
ravages of the teredo in Auckland
harbour. It is little short of astonish-
ing to note the havoc wrought by
this insignificant-looking pest in the
short space of seven or eight years,
wooden piles, 12 inches square, bp-
ing almost eaten through m that time.
The illustration shows some, indeed,
which have been quite severed and
which seriously endanger the safety
of the wharf they were intended to
support. Even the Australian jarrah
and the various kinds of eucalyptus,
which have given good results in
their native country, are quickly
eaten through by the Auckland va-
riety of worm. The New Zealand
totara and the Australian turpentine
are the timbers least attacked, but
even these are far from immune.
Piles of one local wood, the kahika-
tea, or "white pine," have been en-
tirely destroyed in three months' time.
To overcome this great difficulty, the
Harbour Board Engineer decided in
1903 to recommend reinforced con-
crete construction for new work. At
about the same time a large exten-
sion of the wharf accomodation was
planned and a comprehensive scheme
adopted, including retaining walls and
also reclamation works, all of which

A COMPARISON OF NEW AND OLD PILING

are being constructed of plain and re-
inforced concrete.

This enterprising policy was not
carried into effect, as enterprise
rarely is, without considerable oppo-
sition, in this case from those who
failed to grasp the principle of the
new material and were therefore not
in a position to realise its great ad-
vantages. A most effective test was
arranged at the outset, by the engi-
neer, to demonstrate the enormous
strength imparted to concrete by the
incorporation of a small amount of
metallic reinforcement. Two arches
of exactly similar size were con-
structed, one of simple concrete and
one strengthened with three half-inch
iron rods along the tension side. The
dimensions of these arches were 12
ins. by 3 ins., the span was 19 ft.
and the rise 3 ft., and they were

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

THE FERRY WHARF, AUCKLAND HARBOUR, WITH OLD QUEEN'S WHARF AT THE RIGHT

TEMPORARY APPROACH DURING WHARF CONSTRUCTION, AUCKLAND HARBOUR

CONCRETE WORK IN NEW ZEALAND

299

REINFORCED CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION WORK ON THE NEW TECHNICAL SCHOOL, AUCKLAND, NEW ZEALAND

THE TECHNICAL SCHOOL, AUCKLAND; CONCRETE FOUNDATION WORK

3°°

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

TEST OF REINFORCED CONCRETE ARCH FOR AUCKLAND HARBOUR

made of four parts of fine, shingly
sand to one of locally made cement.
A man weighing 196 pounds was di-
rected to stand, without jumping, on
the former and it broke in eleven
clean cracks as a result. The second
arch was loaded, as shown in the
figure, with 19.5 tons of pig iron and
sustained this heavy load for three
hours, collapsing gently when being
unloaded, the concrete being pow-
dered. The value of the reinforce-
ment could scarcely have been more
graphically demonstrated.

The first reinforced concrete work
in Auckland harbour was the con-
struction of a breastwork to replace
one oi timber that had already been
renewed no less than three times.
Other work of this description is be-
ing carried out in several parts of the
harbour, notably at the Freeman's
Bay reclamation. In the former case,
land was reclaimed for large work-
shops and to support a set of 156 ft.
shear-legs, behind reinforced con-
crete retaining walls. A boiler,
loaded to 120 tons, was lowered, on
the erection of the legs, upon the

deck of the concrete wharf, causing
a deflection of only one-eighth inch.
At Freeman's Bay, an area of 67
acres has been enclosed by means of
a plain concrete wall and a rein-
forced concrete quay, and the shal-
low water is being converted into
valuable property by filling in spoil
from the dredges and from the land.
It is in the main port wharves,
however, that the chief work is be-
ing done. Here the old Railway
Wharf, on the eastern side, has been
replaced by a most substantial struc-
ture of a width of 240 ft. and a
length of about 1500 ft. Upon this,
standing back 30 ft. from either sea-
front, are two long sheds, built
wholly of steel and iron, 60 feet wide
and separated by a roadway of simi-
lar width. Modern electric cranes
are at present being installed. That
known as the Queen's Wharf, afford-
ing the chief means of access for
passenger and general cargo boats,
is now undergoing similar treatment.
Much of the total length of 1200 feet
has been completed to a width of
280 ft., and two double-story sheds

CONCRETE WORK IN NEW ZEALAND

301

BUILDING THE NEW QUEEN'S WHARF, AUCKLAND HARBOUR

PIERS FOR THE QUEEN'S WHARF, AUCKLAND HARBOUR, NEW ZEALAND

302

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

are being erected of a width of 80
ft. Near this wharf are smaller off-
shoots, provided with facilities foi
the speedy arrival and departure of
the ferry steamers which play so im-
portant a part in the transit between
the city and its numerous harbour-
suburbs. When these are completed,
further work on the same consider-
able scale will be immediately pro-
ceeded with.

With regard to the use of rein-
forced concrete for buildings, two
instances may be given. One is that
of the new post office now being

erected, the foundations 101- which in-
clude 280 ferro-concrete piles, rang-
ing from 49 ft. to 29 ft in length,
driven down to the mudstone. This
kind of foundation is finding increas-
ing favour and was also adopted in
the case of the new five-story Tech-
nical School. Here, however, the
rest of the building is to be of the
same material. Other examples might
be quoted of the use of ferro-con-
crete, but enough has been said to
show that it is filling a decided want
in the southern hemisphere as well
as elsewhere.

INDUSTRIAL BETTERMENT

By H. F. J. Porter

•GENERAL ADMINISTRATION. SELECTION, EDUCATION AND STIMULATION OF WORK-
MEN; THEIR HEALTH, HOUSING, SOCIETY AND PROTECTION.*

BEFORE entering upon a gen-
eral discussion of the various
methods in business adminis-
tration which relate to the treatment
of the working organization, I desire
to touch upon the phrase "Industrial
Betterment," which, in many minds,
is confined solely to matters affecting
the human element in that organiza-
tion, physically, morally and men-
tally.

Inasmuch as the human element is
so intimately related to everything
which takes place in a business or in-
dustrial enterprise, such an under-
standing is, to a large extent, cor-
rect; but I desire to make it plain
that anything or everything which
tends to improve business or indus-
trial conditions comes under the cate-
gory of Industrial Betterment.

Reverting, for a moment, to the
recent past to seek the origin of the
phrase referred to, we find that dur-
ing the last few years of the nine-
teenth century, when industry was
making enormous strides and com-
petition was becoming very keen,
every innovation in manufacturing
methods was sedulously sought out
and carefully scrutinized for the pur-
pose of observing its effect upon the
establishment to which it was ap-
plied.

In this search for improved meth-
ods progressive manufacturers had
their attention directed to certain
features which German manufac-
turers, at the instigation of and aided
by a paternalistic government, had
adopted in a national effort to im-

* A lecture delivered before the Graduate School
of Business Administration, Harvard University,
Cambridge. Mass.

prove the health, social condition and
intellectual standing of the working
classes. These features comprised
well constructed and comfortable fac-
tory buildings, with good light and
ventilation, sanitary toilet facilities,
wash rooms with hot and cold water,
soap and towels, coat rooms with
clothes lockers and drying apparatus,
rest rooms, lunch rooms with whole-
some food at cost, libraries, safety
appliances on the machinery, emer-
gency hospitals with skilled attend-
ants, compensation for accidents, bene-
ficial organizations, furnishing insur-
ance in case of sickness and death,
long service and old age pensions,
and many other innovations extend-
ing to the housing, environment and
recreation of the employee outside of
working hours. These features had
obtained the name of Wohlfahrts
Einrichtungen, or "Welfare Institu-
tions," which, when their purpose was
considered, was eminently appro-
priate.

A careful investigation of these
features revealed the fact, however,
that not only were they of great
benefit to the working people them-
selves, but that they were productive
of increased prosperity to the estab-
lishments which had introduced them.

It did not take long to grasp the
rationale of this result, viz : that it
was the improved workman who was
accountable for the more efficient
workmanship, and that it was the
totality of the effect of this funda-
mental, economic and educational
movement which was bringing Ger-
many to the front in international
trade competition. Action promptly
followed the determination to adopt

303

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

such of these features as were
deemed applicable to our establish-
ments here, and the appellation of
Industrial Betterment, which was in-
tended to apply to the general im-
provement in industry which came
about simultaneously with their intro-
duction, seemed to refer specifically
to these features, was largely so in-
terpreted, and in many minds is still
associated solely with them. Later,
in an effort to give them a more dis-
tinctive title, the term "Welfare
Work," an incorrect and misleading
translation of the German appella-
tion, was adopted in some of the
larger establishments; but this turned
out to be very inappropriate and most
unfortunate in its effect, as it proved
to be obnoxious to working men and
women as bearing an implication that
they belonged to an inferior class
which needed an uplift by the em-
ployer, and anything savoring of
paternalism or charity was resented
by the self-respecting employee.

There was also a hypocritical atti-
tude on the part of the employer im-
plied in the assumption that he was
instituting improvements for the wel-
fare of his employees, and as in each
case this "Welfare Work" had been
installed solely for the benefit of the
business, this implication was mis-
leading, tending to place both em-
ployer and employee in false and un-
natural relations to each other and in-
creasing the class consciousness which
already existed.

The real estate owner who erects
a modern office building on the site
of an old one and makes it fireproof,
with plenty of light, heat, ventila-
tion, sanitary toilet accommodations
and attractive embellishments, does
these things to keep abreast of the
times, to meet the competition of the
day, and to draw a better-paying
class of tenants. The employer who
erects a modern factory building,
making it fireproof, with plenty of
light, heat, ventilation, sanitary toilet
accommodations and attractive em-
bellishments, also does these things
to keep abreast of the times, to meet

the competition of the day, and to
draw a better class of workmen, who,
by their higher efficiency, will make
his business pay better. There is not
in the mind of either real estate
owner or the employer of labour the
least idea that he is doing these things
for the welfare of his tenants on the
one hand, or of his employees on the
other. In each case he has done
them because it has been found that
such improvements are in the line of
present-day progress, that they pay
an increased interest on the invest-
ment, and, therefore, in each case it
is initially for the welfare of the
projector of the improvements that
they were performed ; and because
these features have a reflex beneficial
effect upon those who choose to take
advantage of them neither projector
should pose as a philanthropist and
patronize the beneficiaries, and feel
hurt because they apparently do not
realize, or, at all events, do not ex-
press their obligations to him for such
benefactions.

It is important that warning should
be given regarding misleading in-
terpretations of these terms at the
outset, since there are instances in
which these features have been in-
troduced under the term "Welfare
Work" and have actually failed of
their purpose on that account.

In the next place, I wish to empha-
size particularly the fact that no
business or industrial enterprise can
afford to do anything which does not
bear directly upon securing the in-
creased efficiency of its mechanical
processes and working organization.
Anything beyond this as applied to
the human element savors of charity,
which is outside of the province of a
business enterprise, and is bound to
react unfavourably upon its suc-
cess. But anything which will in-
crease efficiency it will be perfectly
proper to do, provided care is taken
that it is done in the right way. x\s
everything that comes under the head
of "Welfare Work" tends towards
efficiency, it would be more rational
and straightforward to call it all

INDUSTRIAL BETTERMENT

3°5

"efficiency work," which would de-
scribe it perfectly and be acceptable
to both employer and employee.

In this connection, however, we
must realize that our standards of
living are steadily rising. Certain
needs which are imperative to the in-
dividual now were not so some time
ago, or are so in one place and not in
another. These are brought about
by advance in civilization and social
or industrial competition, and vary
according to location and environ-
ment of the individual. Problems
have been developed by the growth
of shops, from the small one where
the owner was a mechanic and knew
all of his men by name, and was on
friendly terms with each of them, to
the larger one with its enormous ag-
gregations of working forces running
up to thousands, where the head of
the concern never comes in contact
with any of his workmen.

The study of economics in educa-
tional institutions has developed re-
searches into the means for increas-
ing national efficiency and for the
conservation of national resources,
and we are learning that the waste
of labour and material in industrial
enterprises everywhere is enormous
and unnecessary. Efforts are, there-
fore, being made in all directions
towards its prevention as well as
cure. Dr. Eliot has said, regarding
the way which human beings are be-
ing used up in the trades : "Every
blunted intellect, every maimed or
diseased body, is a direct tax upon
the people, through the necessity for
maintaining hospitals and invalid
homes at the public expense. We
now know that the most effective la-
bour, and cheapest in proportion to
its product, is found where the labour-
ing classes live comfortably, are well
housed and fed, develop their intelli-
gence and widen their prospects. The
cheapest labour is no longer consid-
ered the most profitable."

As a result of this change in our
economic standards, political and so-
cial reformers in our Legislatures
are framing laws making it a crime

4-2

for men or corporations to exploit
for their own selfish ends the time
and effort of their workers, especially
children, regardless of the result upon
them, and the courts are enforcing
these laws against those who have
not attained to these higher stand-
ards, requiring their recognition or
the payment of a penalty. Manufac-
turers are being told that they should
protect and insure their employees
from accident and charge the cost to
the product to be paid by the con-
sumer ; then only those who choose
to buy the goods pay the tax.

So that now the State, when it
grants to a man or a corporation a-
charter with the privilege to do busi-
ness or to operate a factory, realizing
that the conditions and tendencies af-
fecting the employment of people en-
gaged in the enterprise have an inti-
mate relation to the social problems
with which the State has to deal, in-
sists that the business or factory shall
conserve rather than become a menace
to the interests of the people with
whom it has transactions and of the
community in which it is located.

We must also appreciate that our
ethical and economic standards are
advancing. A great change has come
about in the relations between men
generally, as compared to those which
existed twenty-five or thirty years
ago. The broader spirit of the times
inculcates the doctrine that all men
are brothers. The "square deal" and
"fair play" are common phrases in
the business vocabulary. Giving con-
sideration to the other man's point
of view is a practical demonstration
of the Golden Rule.

But every concern has certain needs
and conditions which must be met in
an individual way, irrespective of
how some other concern makes the
attempt. We must, therefore, be
guarded in advocating special meth-
ods for one factory merely because
they have been successful in another,
and careful in our criticism concern-
ing those who have adopted certain
methods in their efforts at industrial
betterment of this type merely be-

3°6

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

cause we know that other concerns
adopted them inadvisedly and found
them detrimental to their business.
This would seem to be self-evident ;
and yet it is seldom understood.

A short time ago I was visited by
a manufacturer who told me that
he desired to improve conditions in
his plant, and as he had never done
anything in the nature of what he
called "Welfare Work" for his em-
ployees, he felt that he would like me
to tell him what features would be
best to introduce. He told me that
after he had come to his decision to
do something of this kind, he had
written to several of the large repre-
sentative concerns of the country ask-
ing what they had done in this direc-
tion, and he had their replies to show
me.

To his surprise I told him that I
did not care to see their letters, as
they had no bearing on his case, and
that he was acting like a man who
felt he had something the matter
with him physically and, without di-
agnosing his own case, had asked va-
rious friends what medicines they
had been taking for their ailments,
which were probably of an entirely
different nature. I told him the only
way for him to proceed would be
to study his own needs, and when he
]had found out what they were, to
jneet them in the most effective man-
ner. And this I then found was what
be, on account of his method, or
irather lack of method of manage-
ment, did not know how to do.

Now, let us see what is the best
way to bring about industrial better-
ment to meet the requirements of the
working organization. In the first
place, it is evident, owing to the
varied conditions existing in different
establishments, that in each case they
must be studied in order to be under-
stood, and that this study demands
the application of the scientific
method of investigation which, al-
though of recent origin, has now
completely replaced the empiricism of
the past, if we expect to trace the re-
lationship between cause and effect,

between acts and their consequences.
To secure this information and to use
it effectively requires intelligence of
a very high type to begin with, in
conjunction with a course of instruc-
tion in the art of management. By
these means only a knowledge of
competent managership can be se-
cured.

Competent managership is what has
to be learned from those who, by
actual experience in the field of in-
dustry, have proven to be successful
managers, and by this I do not mean
merely successful financial manage-
ment in the interest of the enterprise,
but that broader successful manage-
ment which takes into consideration
the employee, the community, the
State and the Nation.

In the first place, management has
largely to do with the understanding
of human nature, and this element of
man does not vary much, whether we
have under consideration a few or a
large number of people. The same
principles apply whether we are con-
cerned with the management of a
small group, such as is included in
an industrial enterprise, or a larger
one as embodied in an industrial town
or a city, State or a Nation.

There are many industrial enter-
prises employing in a single plant
from 5,000 to 15,000 men and
women who spend there the greater
number of their waking hours. Each
of these plants constitutes a , good-
sized town.

In all of these the same social laws
prevail. These laws are man-made
and then enforcement is carried out
by man. Civilization advances, cus-
toms change, and as fast as laws en-
acted to meet certain conditions prove
to be ineffective, they have to be
changed to meet the exigencies of the
new situation.

It is by the study of history and
the analysis of action and reaction
that we are able to note tendencies,
and tendencies are prophetic, inas-
much as they indicate the direction in
which we are going and so give us
foresight to determine whether we

INDUSTRIAL BETTERMENT

3°7

shall continue our course or change
it.

Looking back over the history of
nations, and studying the kinds of
government which they have adopted,
and observing their effects upon the
people, we note that the tendency has
been to change from absolute mon-
archy or one-man control, first to
oligarchy, or control by the few, and
finally towards representative govern-
ment, i. e., government by the people
themselves, or self-government.

In both of the former the service
of the many was exploited for the
benefit of the ruling element, while in
the latter every man has a voice in
determining what shall be done to
him. Favoritism to the few in the
former is replaced by equal oppor-
tunity for all in the latter.

Just so in the domain of industry,
the factory organization self-gov-
erned, when properly directed by
competent management, has been
proven to be the best managed or-
ganization. But some employers say
they would not trust their employees
so far as to enlist their co-operation
in a representative system of manage-
ment. These are the employers who
are having the most trouble with
their men because the latter in turn
do not trust them, and when there
is mutual distrust there can be no.
harmony or co-operation. Some em-
ployers say they cannot yield their
authority to their organization or
their responsibility will cease. This
would be true if they yielded their
authority, but they do so no more
than a man yields the use of his legs
when he uses a carriage. On the
contrary, he uses both as vehicles to
reach his destination.

These employers, ruling as absolute
monarchs over their little realms, are
relics of feudalism. They are so en-
amored of their self-assumed right
to rule that they assert it arbitrarily.
Occasionally, when they are excep-
tionally overbearing and arouse the
resentment of their subjects, they
plead for co-operation, but expect
the latter to do all the co-operating,

and when one workman who, on ac-
count of his higher capabilities as a
leader, is put forward by his fellows
to present their grievances, he is at
once selected as an agitator or dis-
turbing element, and discharged. This
man's inherent superior qualifications,
which are recognized by his fellow
workmen, are thus repudiated by the
management. Just as by this process
Russia has lost her ablest reformers,
so are employers daily losing their
most competent workmen.

Again, Dr. Eliot says, in his mono-
graph on "Education for Efficiency" :
"The faculty for discerning and using
conspicuous merit in other people,
distinguishes the most successful
rulers, administrators and men of
business." Too many men, however,
dislike or fear opposition, and en-
deavor arbitrarily to dispense with it.
But wherever there are strong minds,
there is bound to be diversity of
opinion, and it is this which, when
given freedom of expression, brings
about new ideas and advance and
progress. It requires resistance to
develop energy; autocratic suppres-
sion of it as under absolute monarchic
rule, engenders stagnation for a
while, till fermentation develops and
then comes the inevitable clearing up
process, which is apt to be expensive.
This sort of absolute monarchical
management of industrial establish-
ments is an anachronism in the twen-
tieth century. It is a condition of
unstable equilibrium in countries
where men are supposed to be free,
but are by no means so during their
waking hours ; where thousands of
these little feudal domains exist, with
millions of serfs employed in them,
all dominated by fear and each
utterly helpless even to express his
many grievances. It is not surpris-
ing from our studies of history and
our knowledge of human nature, that
workmen who are daily being re-
minded of their right to a liberty
which they do not possess, have or-
ganized and are fighting through
their unions to obtain that liberty.
First formed for defense, these

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

unions grew large and powerful, and
in the hands of the self-exploiting
demagogue have frequently been a
menace to individual industries, and
a source of much suffering to their
members, and expense to the public.
This labor movement, if intelligently
directed, might be of great benefit to
all concerned ; but, as Henry George,
Jr., writes on "The Dangers of
Unionism," "large, unincorporated
bodies of this kind, wielding great
powers without responsibility, are sel-
dom controlled by men of sound
judgment and integrity. Where men
get power for which they do not
have to account, they become cor-
rupted by it, and they abuse it, or
else, resisting temptation and striving
to use their power well, they are
swept aside by the crafty and un-
scrupulous. Human nature remain-
ing what it is this must be the rule."

And the same statement applies to
the average employer when vested
with the supreme control of his em-
ployees.

The industrial betterment theories
of the labor unions are in the main
praiseworthy, and the results which
they have permanently attained are
undoubtedly meritorious. What they
have secured, however, is far less
than they have demanded and could
have attained with a moiety of the
effort expended. Their aggresive
methods are as objectionable as the
tyrannical methods of some employ-
ers, and a working organization
which is subjected to the disturbing
influence of both is in a sad plight,
and in no position to render efficient
service. Fear is still the medium
used by many to compel subservience,
as it was in the dark ages, whereas,
in these enlightened days it is known
that only by the absence of fear and
its replacement by confidence can sat-
isfactory results be obtained. If the
unions would adopt an educational
propaganda to induce employers to
accept democratic ideas, instead of
endeavoring to enforce their ideas by
militant methods, they would accom-
plish their ends more rapidly and

more effectively than they are now
doing. But the unions will eventu-
ally drive industry to adopt demo-
cratic methods by a negative process,
just as the evils of standing armies
will compel nations to arbitrate their
differences, or as the boss and the
machine have driven municipalities to
adopt government by commission.
Thus will the unions accomplish their
purpose, but by a method entirely un-
premeditated and undesired by them
on account of its disastrous reactive
effect upon them ; for when an in-
dustrial establishment is controlled by
a representative management its
members are in so much better condi-
tion than when dominated by a union
that they are only too glad to drop
the latter and be independent.

The tendency on the part of the
governed under an absolute rule is
to oppose the existing order of things,
which they cannot understand and
which they feel does not favor their
interests, but exists for the purpose
of conserving the interests of those
who have brought it about. The ten-
dency of representative government
is to make everybody concerned do
his part toward bettering the condi-
tions which affect him and his fel-
lows.

These two methods of government,
therefore, draw their inspiration from
opposite sources, ignorance and
knowledge. One comes from sup-
pression of information, the other
from publicity. One encourages
revolution, the other evolution.
Wrong" thinking develops one, right
thinking the other. No man need be
feared who thinks right. Get men
to think right and the rest will take
care of itself. But right thinking re-
quires freedom of personal initiative,
or compulsion from within rather
than from without. One through re-
straint discourages the establishment
of enlightened public opinion, the
other encourages it, and it has been
found that where public opinion can
be established on a basis of intelli-
gence, there is no more potent ele-
ment for safe progress, and the best

INDUSTRIAL BETTERMENT

3°9

way to establish public opinion is by
a policy of publicity.

James Bryce, in his "American
Commonwealth," says :

"Towering over presidents and
State governors, over Congress and
State legislatures, over conventions
and the vast machinery of party, pub-
lic opinion stands out in the United
States as the great source of power,
the master of servants who tremble
before it. . . .It grows up not in
Congress, not in State legislatures,
not in those great conventions which
frame platforms and choose candi-
dates, but at large among people. It
is expressed in voices everywhere. It
rules as a pervading and impalpable
power like the ether which passes
through all things. It binds all the
parts of the complicated system to-
gether and gives them whatever unity
of aim and action they possess."

It would seem to be necessary,
then, in order to secure substantial
betterment in the domain of industry,
that the basic principles of repre-
sentative government should become
dominant in it, and it is interesting to
note in exemplification of this state-
ment that whenever these principles
have been scientifically applied there
has been an immediate and remark-
able improvement in conditions.

Theory has proclaimed their prac-
ticability. Frequent trial has demon-
strated it.

What concerns us now, therefore,
is the means by which these princi-
ples can be applied to an industrial
organization. How can they be in-
stituted in a factory, and how do
they accomplish what the ordinary
form of shop government constructed
on the monarchical plan has signally
failed to secure in the past, i. e., in-
dustrial peace, without which no shop
can settle down to enthusiastic and
effective work.

In the first place, the system of
management must be a representative
one, so constituted that the working
forces have a recognized channel
whereby the opportunity is extended
of expressing their needs. This ex-

pression must be encouraged and con-
sideration given to it by a perma-
nently organized board or committee,
composed of a representation of the
working forces. This board must be
inspired and authorized to act in ac-
cordance with its best judgment, for
the ultimate betterment of the busi-
ness as a whole. For this reason, the
more intelligent its personnel and the
better informed it is, regarding the
bearing of general matters on the
business, from the standpoint of
economics, the better will be the re-
sults obtained. It must, as much as
possible, be free to reach its decisions
unhampered by outside influences.
For this reason the shop must be in
every sense an open one, free from
entanglements with labor unions.

The ways of adopting representa-
tive methods of control in industrial
organizations vary according to the
conditions existing in each one of
them ; but all of them must embody
some means of co-operation between
management and working force,
which can best be accomplished
through an elected board composed
of representatives from these two
elements.

Some concerns, like the Pennsyl-
vania Railroad Company, the United
States Steel Corporation and the Na-
tional Biscuit Company, reserve a
certain amount of stock at a reason-
able cost, and encourage their em-
ployees to buy it, and thus become
part owners in the enterprise, with a
right to vote for representation on
the Board of Directors. Others, like
the N. O. Nelson Co., of St. Louis,
extend their profit-sharing system so
as to include their customers. These
are examples of the direction in
which those who are willing to break
away from the beaten path are mov-
ing. Between the two extremes re-
ferred to are many who, like the
William Filene Son's Co., of Boston,
form a permanent shop committee,
elected by the employees, and this
committee has certain privileges of
recommendation regarding the better-
ment of shop conditions, of improve-

3io

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

ment in methods of manufacture, and
design of product, to a committee
appointed by the management, com-
posed of the heads of departments.

A system of this kind closely re-
sembles the American democratic
form of State and National govern-
ment with its elected lower house, its
appointed Senate, and at the head the
Governor or President with his cabi-
net.

In this instance the cabinet consists
of the officers of the company, viz., the
treasurer, who has charge of the re-
ceipts and disbursements of money;
the secretary, or general sales mana-
ger, who obtains the business ; the
superintendent of manufacture, who
has charge of the conversion of the
customer's orders into finished
product, and the controller, who su-
pervises the accounting or cost of the
transformation of working capital
into bills receivable. These four
officers must develop departments
which are entirely separate and dis-
tinct from each other, but which
must be so harnessed and driven that
they will pull together in parallel
with proper team work.

When some means of participating
in the financial vicissitudes of the
business is added to a representative
system of this kind, the interests of
management and employee become
identical ; the workmen work with
rather than for the management, these
two elements pull together, and the
best conditions exist for industrial
betterment.

Having constructed the framework
of the organization according to the
plan outlined, it will be necessary to
install administrative machinery of a
type which will be in sympathy witn
those forces which are most effective
in developing the latent efficiency of
the human element in the organiza-
tion as a whole, to its fullest extent.

The representative system must be
further developed according to the
requirements of each establishment,
but a very satisfactory means of ob-
taining the close co-operation of the
individual operative with the manage-

ment is by the development of a defi-
nite channel by which he can express
his ideas and needs to the committees.

These expressions are made in the
shape of signed suggestions, which
are passed upon first by the Works
Committee, composed of representa-
tives of the working organization,
then by the Board of Foremen, and
finally are disposed of by the Mana-
ger, or whoever is in active charge of
the business. Every suggestion which
is adopted is paid for.

By accepting no anonymous sug-
gestions, and by giving full publicity
to the actions of the committees, the
dignity of character of the system is
maintained, and it becomes one of
the most fruitful elements of Indus-
trial Betterment so far devised. It
must be recognized, however, as a
subordinate but important part of a
representative system of management,
and not an entity in itself which can
be incorporated into a business or-
ganization as ordinarily constituted.
It is a plant which thrives and brings
forth abundant fruit in proper soil,
and right environment, but is blighted
and soon dies in captivity. I have
seen attempts made to install sugges-
tion systems by managers who did
not believe in representative control
methods, and they have been complete
failures.

Once there is established in the
minds of the working organization a
feeling of confidence that, instead of
exploitation, methods of co-opera-
tion have been promulgated by the
management an esprit de corps is de-
veloped which is far more effective
for shop discipline and efficiency than
all the fear which can be engendered
by strict supervision. This sentiment
once established, all the rest comes,
and if it is accompanied by efficient
management it comes so quickly as to
surprise everybody by the results.

Now, as to some of the details of
Industrial Betterment, let us con-
sider :

I. THE SELECTION OF WORKMEN.

In this connection it must be borne
in mind that the characteristics of an

INDUSTRIAL BETTERMENT

311

efficient workman are, first, good
health, without which he cannot be
regular in attendance, permanent in
service or capable of giving a normal
amount of strength physically or
mentally to his duties when at work.
Second, he must be of high moral
quality or his habits outside of work-
ing hours will disqualify him when
at work, and, third, he must be of
good mental caliber and have high
manual skill in order to think and
work right.

Every industrial establishment,
managed according to modern ideas,
establishes a beneficial society among
its workmen and helps it financially.
This society provides for the work-
man during periods of sickness and
assists the family at his death. One
of the duties of the physician whose
services are controlled by this society
should be to pass upon each employee
before he is accepted as a member of
the organization. He should be one
of the staff of the employment
bureau, which should include also one
or more members of the working or-
ganization. The only way the latter
can develop and maintain an esprit
de corps is by letting it have some-
thing to say about its personnel.

2. THE STIMULATION OF THE
WORKMEN.

The environment of the workmen
in the factory, his hours of work, his
wages and his prospects of advance-
ment, must all be so attractive as to
cause him to strive to do his best in
order to hold his position.

Where such conditions exist there
is always a waiting list of applicants,
and there is no better stimulant to
exertion than the knowledge that if
one does his duty he is fully pro-
tected, but that if he neglects it he
discharges himself and there is a man
ready to take his place on short
notice.

But human nature needs en-
couragement. It responds better to
coaxing than to prodding. Men can
easily be led and they will then be
imbued with a better spirit than when

they are being driven. In the first
case they move by their voluntary
will, in the second case they move by
the initiative of some one else's will,
which means against their will, and
then their resentment is aroused.
Progressive managers have installed
various means of encouraging men
to work, finding that force does not
bring about desired results. Bonus
systems of payment are more con-
ducive to exertion than fines or dock-
ing wages. The payment of a pre-
mium on punctuality and regularity
of attendance will get the individual
machines started promptly in the
morning and at noon and keep them
going every day.

3. THE EDUCATION OF THE WORKMEN

It is presumed that the most intelli-
gent and skilled of the men available
will be selected for each position
which is to be filled.

If, then, the inducement to hold
their positions subsequently is suffi-
ciently strong, it will naturally act as
a stimulant for all to improve their
talents and every encouragement on
the part of the management should
be manifested to aid them in their en-
deavor. Some of the larger and
more progressive concerns have
found it advantageous to establish
schools in connection with their fac-
tories, where courses are given in
technical and manual training which
will aid the men to become more pro-
ficient in their work.

So much stress is being devoted to
industrial education, however, in the
correspondence, public and other
schools that it will generally be nec-
essary only to inspire the ambition of
the men to improve their talents and
to place them in the way of obtaining
the benefits of facilities already exist-
ing- , .

The provision of literature, techni-
cal and popular, which may be taken
home, will be a great help in this
direction. A small charge can be
made for keeping books out over a
stated time. This charge acts as a
reminder to return them and estab-

312

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

lishes a fund with which to secure
new ones.

4. THE HEALTH OF THE WORKMEN

When it is realized that the health
of the operative and his efficiency are
co-relative it should not require much
persuasion to get the management to
devote considerable attention to those
conditions about the factory buildings
which will effect the comfort and
health of its occupants. Good air
and plenty of it at the right tempera-
ture, good light, convenient and
sanitary lavatories, all come as a
matter of course.

All of these, however, must be sup-
plied intelligently. Air can be forced
in so that draughts occasioned by it
are not only discomforting but dan-
gerous. Light may be accompanied
by so much heat as to be uncomfort-
able. Lavatories may be so incon-
venient and badly arranged as to be
useless or unsanitary. In a large elec-
tric works, and in a steel works which
I visited recently, I saw wash rooms
which were so seldom used that the
water had been shut off. In another,
the use of roller towels had resulted
in the spread of skin and blood
diseases. Rest rooms for the accom-
modation of those temporarily indis-
posed prevent the loss of valuable
time. Coat rooms where damp
clothes can be changed for dry ones,
and the operatives are encouraged to
provide themselves with dry stock-
ings and slippers, will be conducive
to increased efficiency on wet days.
There is nothing so distracting as
cold feet, and the lowering of vi-
tality due to wet clothing invites pul-
monary diseases which will cause ab-
sences and loss of time.

Exhaust fans for extracting dust
and grit from polishing and grinding
operations, safety appliances attached
to machinery to prevent accidental
catching of clothing or limbs, all are
conducive to saving expense in the
long run.

The segregation of the tuberculous,
and the exclusion of those suspected
of having been exposed to contagious

diseases, are precautionary measures
now being generally adopted. The
examination of the eyes and teeth,
and extending help to remedy their
defects, will tend towards preventing
absences and saving time.

Emergency rooms for administer-
ing first aid to the injured, by com-
petent experts, prevent incipient
wounds from developing into more
serious maladies.

Occasional talks, by the physician of
the Beneficial Society, on "how to live
right," will prevent much sickness in
the families of the operatives and
so increase the percentage of attend-
ance of those who are the wage-
earners, a cheerful room with facili-
ties for warming their lunch and
where the operatives may gather for
their midday meal, with the provision
of free coffee and tea, will tend to
make the afternoon hours productive
of better results than if they are left
to themselves to eat a cold lunch,
with, perhaps, the accompaniment of
stronger stimulants.

The drink habit has become of late
years such a serious menace to disci-
pline and an obstacle to efficiency,
that many concerns have taken the
stand squarely that they will not em-
ploy or retain in service any one who
is addicted to alcohol or other drugs.
The habit should, however, be looked
upon as a curable disease rather than
a vice, and every effort made to help
individuals to effect a cure rather
than perfunctorily to turn them out
of the community for the public to
handle. A man helped to free him-
self from the chains of intemperance
will make a loyal adherent to the
company's interests.

5. THE HOUSING OF THE WORKMEN

This subject is given little or no
thought by the average employer. It
should be realized, however, that the
hours spent away from the factory
affect those spent at work.

For this reason every assistance
should be extended to the men to
enable them to secure reasonable and
sanitary lodgings, so located that the

INDUSTRIAL BETTERMENT

3*3

transportation to and from work will
not be irksome or expensive. The
workmen should arrive at the factory
fresh and anxious to pick up their
implements and get to work rather
than sleepy from a night of poor rest
or tired from a toilsome journey.

Sometimes, owing to the isolated
location of the plant or a dearth of
lodging houses in the neighborhood,
it will be advantageous to provide
houses, and should this be the case
care should be taken to see that they
are supplied at a reasonable rental
and that they are neat and attractive.
A bonus for the best kept house and
surroundings, paid monthly, will
prove a good investment, as a saving
in upkeep is thereby accomplished.

6. THE SOCIETY OF THE WORKMEN

Man is a social animal by nature.
It is desirable for his mental and
moral health and growth that he as-
sociate with his fellows, and in-
dulge with them in pleasurable
recreation. Often it will be found
that in the effort to assuage this
craving bad associations are formed
and it will be found desirable
to assist the employees to form social
organizations, offering rooms in the
factory building for gatherings,
where they can listen to educational
or popular addresses, attend social
gatherings where music and dancing
are enjoyed. The attendance at ah
such gatherings must be purely vol-
untary and the attractions of such a
character as to "draw." When these
affairs are left to the people them-
selves, extending only such assistance
as may be requested, the best results
are attained.

J. THE PROTECTION OF THE WORKMEN

Every organization, every group of
individuals, contains at least one per-
son whose ideas of fair-dealing vary
so much from those of the rest that
if he has a position of vantage over
the others they will need protection
from his acts. Every community
contains people whose shrewdness is

so overdeveloped that they take un-
due and unexpected advantage of
every one with whom they come in
contact. Protection against the
grasping tendencies of such people is
necessary on the part of those who
are practically helpless from ig-
norance or lack of moral or financial
ability to resist.

Every industrial enterprise or com-
munity contains men who are misfits
— more successful as political leaders
than mechanics, who, failing to ob-
tain success in their trade, become
disturbing influences and agitate
trouble among those whose reason-
ing powers are less developed than
their passions and sentimental ten-
dencies. The latter must be educated
to see conditions from a broad view-
point, so as to penetrate the super-
ficial arguments of the demagogue
and ally their interests with those of
the company so that they can be
mutual.

The services of an attorney placed
at the disposal of the employees at a
nominal sum will be of enormous
benefit to them, and if the man is
tactful and can secure the confidence
of the workmen he can be a power
towards keeping the organization co-
operative and loyal.

Petty subscriptions started in the
works for all sorts of purposes,
which sometimes become a drain
upon the employees, can be controlled
by prohibiting all except those per-
mitted by the "works committee."

Bulletin boards on which are posted
the minutes of the meetings of the
various committees insure publicity,
and establish public opinion, so that
principles rather than rules govern
the plant.

It is evident that in order to ob-
tain the highest efficiency of the em-
ployee, his undivided and enthusiastic
interest must be secured in his work.
The employer must, therefore, do all
in his power to contribute to his
peace of mind, so that his thoughts
will not be divided from his work.

The principal causes of worry
which the employer can do much to

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

relieve are the overbearing and dicta-
torial attitude of foremen, possible
reduction of wages, loss of position,
accident during occupation, and its
resultant effect upon the fortunes of
the family, loss of health from the
effects of unsanitary conditions at-
tending working operations. Some
of the means by which relief can be
secured have been mentioned, but in
addition the employer may establish
a fund for insurance against accident
and sickness, and one for pensions
for long service and old age.

How far outside of the factory the
influence of the employer can be felt in
these same directions will be a matter
for the individual employer to deter-
mine. That he is responsible for hav*
ing secured the presence of the em-
ployee in his factory is recognized,
and it is, therefore, his duty to him-
self and to his company to secure the
employee's highest efficiency; but as
he is also accountable for having
brought the employee into the com-
munity where the factory is located,
it is also his duty to see that this ef-
ficiency is not secured at the expense
of this individual or this community.

All of this means, besides a knowl-

edge of competent management on
the part of the employer, a full reali-
zation of the obligations of citizen-
ship not only as they apply to his em-
ployees, but as they are related to the
State and the Nation.

Many people fear that a crisis is
impending in the conflict between
capital and labor, and point to the
standing armies, composed of the
combinations of manufacturers on
one side and the trade unions on the
other.

I am not among those who look for
a general revolution, although I ex-
pect there will continue to be many
clashes at arms between these two
bodies whenever a manufacturer be-
comes despotic or a labour union arbi-
trary. I have seen the results of rep-
resentative methods of management
and know that they are preventive of
so-called labour troubles. I have seen
how easily these methods can be in-
troduced. What I hope and expect
to see is an evolution to these repre-
sentative methods brought about by
the education of men in competent
management in the economic schools
now being established in the repre-
sentative colleges

STEEL SHEET PILING

By J. F. Springer
III. APPLICATIONS OF SHEET PILING IN GERMANY

Although Germany seems to have
been the country where the sheet
pile formed of steel was first applied
to practical use, yet the German
engineers did not, apparently, at
once adopt it with any unanimity.
However, about the time the Amer-
icans began to get awake to the value
of steel sheetings we find that their
Teutonic cousins likewise became
alert. Thus in 1904, at the very
considerable port Bremen, a length
of 1,050 feet of steel sheet piling
was constructed as a retaining wall
along the shore. The soil was known
to become difficult of penetration at
a considerable dept, because of a
local gravel bed. In fact, a couple
of year? previous it seems that this
circumstance compelled a recourse to
steel sheet piles. The piling thus
used was, however, of a fabricated
type and consisted of I-beams and
channel bars. Now it was proposed
to introduce a newer, style — the Lars-
sen sheeting. In favor of the later
development m piling were two
prominent considerations : ( 1 ) the
cost would be less, and (2) the
stiffness of the section greater. Thus
the older type is, said to have weighed
47.9 pounds per average square foot
of finished surface, while the Larssen
piling only weighed 27.1 pounds. The
moments of resistance were in the
ratio of 6 : 7 and in favor of the
new form.

The illustrations show the manner
in which the Larssen piles have been
used in connection with improvement
works on the Weser, near Bremen.
The old slope of the shore is indi-

cated. This was, apparently, re-
tained for the most part back of the
line of piling. Subsequently to the
driving of the piles, the soil in front
of them was dredged to the depth of
26 feet, thus accommodating very
considerable vessels close up to shore.
There was a railway track located at
the top of the incline above the piles.
The slope was at an inclination of
1 : 2. The wall of steel sheeting
made it possible to have deep water
at a horizontal distance of about 30
feet from the center of this track.
Of course, the pressure of the water
and that of the strata back of the
piling tended to neutralize each other.
But this was not relied on to main-
tain the integrity of the steel wall.
A line of walling was run along the
top and the piling anchored by means
of land ties. The piles were about
29 feet long and were driven to a
point about 6J4 feet below the gen-
eral level of the subsequent dredging.
The tops of the piles were, at the
completion of operations, about 5 feet
below the high water mark.

This sheeting was found to be not
only impervious as to the retained
soil, but also as to water. The tide
at this locality varies nearly 6 feet,
so that a disturbance of the pressure
front and back would become quite
pronounced. The withdrawal of six
feet of water from the front of the
sheeting would mean the withdrawal
°f 375 pounds of resistance per
linear foot. If the pressure from the
shore side should become, for any
reason, strongly effective, this might
prove a troublesome condition. So

315

316

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

SHEET PILING, LARSSEN SYSTEM, ON THE LOWER WESER, NEAR BREMEN

complete was the watertightness ot age of water from the rear of the

the sheeting found to be that it was wall of piles.

deemed best in subsequent construe- In spite of the tough and firm

tion to make openings for the drain- layer of gravel about a yard in thick-

,:■..'■■"'

™gj

LARSSEN SHEET PILING ON THE WERDERDAMM AT BREMEN

STEEL SHEET PILING

317

RETAINING WALL OF LARSSEN PILING, PRIOR TO FILLING EARTH BACKING

ness, no real difficulty was experi- but was cut through smoothly. The

enced in driving the piles. At a ease of penetration of the Larssen

depth of about 25 feet a root about form is due to its smooth surface.

4 inches in diameter was encountered, The cost of this construction per

LARSSEN SHEET PILING ON THE WOLTMERSHAUSER CANAL, NEAR BREMEN

3i8

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

•""***

•X * —-

1 -. 9 ■.■■ ■ M

• ■ - '

' "-I ' '' .— .. -. .- „,'. J

RETAINING WALL CONSTRUCTION ON THE WOLTMERSHAUSER CANAL

square foot of finished wall may be
tabulated as follows :

Sheet piling $0,540

Land-tieing and bracing. .135
Driving, etc .191

Total $0,666

A further application of the same
piling was made in the same district
in the following year by the construc-
tion of a permanent retaining wall of
similar character. The old slope
which was retained for the upper
part of the work was the same as
before, but there was imposed a
heavier load above the retaining wall
because it rose to a greater height.
Consequently it seemed necessary to'
provide superior resistance for a
probable superior horizontal thrust.
Consequently the thickness of the
piling was increased from 0.39 inch
to .43 inch. The weight was accord-
ingly increased from 27.1 pounds to
30.2 pounds per square foot. These
piles were 39 feet in length, and
when in place projected above high
water. The length of wall con-
structed here was about 877 feet.

There was provided a retaining sur-
face of about 2,850 square feet, part
of which is perpetually submerged,
part is alternately submerged and ex-
posed, and part is perpetually ex-
posed. As the heads of the piles
rose past the face of the slope, a fill-
ing was provided behind.

As to cost, the following table sup-
plies details per square foot:

Sheet piling $0,585

Land-tieing and bracing. .225
Driving, etc .191

Total $1,001

The last item is the same as before.
The increased cost of the piling itself
is understandable on account of the
augmentation of the weight. It will
be noticed, however, that the amount
for land-tieing and bracing is very
considerably increased — 67%.

Two other smaller constructions
were carried out in the same vicinity
during the same year (1905). In
both, the length of pile and thickness
of metal were reduced. Both formed
retaining walls for the municipal sand
piles at the water front. The lengths

STEEL SHEET PILING

319

DRIVING LARSSEN PILES ON THE WOLTMERSHAUSER CANAL, BREMEN

of wall were, respectively, about
-feet and 195 feet.

In these four applications of the
Larssen piling at Bremen, a total
weight of sheeting amounting to
about 1,146 short tons was used.
There was a total length of wall of
about 2,990 feet. The whole is
•permanent construction, and a great
•deal is exposed to the varying condi-
tions of wind and wave. No real
difficulty seems to have been experi-
enced in driving the Larssen piling
to place.

To secure certain buildings of a
■private firm in Bremen against the
action of the water a line of Larssen
■piling was driven. Two prominent
•considerations entered here. First,
there were a good many stones in
the soil to be penetrated, and second,
it was advisable to avoid the serious
jarring of the earth which accom-
■panies the hard driving of wooden
-piling. And steel sheeting is admir-
ably adapted to meet both considera-
tions. In still other construction at
^Bremen, the Larssen piling has been

found serviceable. In one of these
cases the length of the piles was 47
feet, while actual penetration into the
soil was about 36 feet. In seeking
to make this piling absolutely water-
tight, one has the sheets prepared in
such a way that a recess is left in
the interlock. This may be filled,
before driving, with clay, asphaltum
or the like, suiting the sealing ma-
terial to the conditions. If the con-
struction is merely temporary clay
may be used ; if permanent, some
other sealing substance should be
selected, since the amount of clay
used for the seal is too small to be
relied on for permanency.

In connection with the development
of metallic sheet piling the question
of the driving of the piles has to be
considered. The older form, using
the force of gravity upon a heavy
weight, raised to a considerable height
and allowed to fall upon the head of
the pile, answered fairly well for tim-
ber piles driven into mud or soft earth.
When, however, this method was used
for wooden sheet piling driven down

32°

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

— JlMk
■I

2*^

AN EXAMPLE OF THE CONDITION OF WOODEN SHEET PILING AFTER AN ATTEMPT TO
DRIVE IN HARD BOTTOM

to hard bottom, it was found that the
results were unsatisfactory and the
illustration shows how timber piles
have been damaged by attempts to
drive them under such conditions.

It is now well understood that a
portion of the supporting power of a
pile is due to the friction of its sides

against the earth, and the same fric-
tional resistance which is utilized in
this manner must also be overcome in
driving. The resistance of the fric-
tion of rest is much greater than the
resistance of friction during motion,
and hence it is evident that if the
blows of the ram are made to follow

STEEL SHEET PILING

321

VULCAN STEAM HAMMER DRIVING % INCH WEMI.INGER STEEL SHEET PILING AT THE CITY NATIONAL
BANK BUILDING, NEW YORK CITY

each other so rapidly that the pile does
not have time to come to rest between
them, much time will be saved in the
operation of driving and much less
injury produced upon the pile. As
soon as the operation of driving
ceases, the earth closes in upon the
pile and the full sustaining effect of
the frictional grip is secured.

The modern pile hammers, several

4-3

types of which have been illustrated
in these articles, are designed so as to
be self-contained, the frame contain-
ing the cylinder and the ram being
attached to the piston rod so that it
is positively operated both up and
down, the motive power being either
steam or compressed air. Such ma-
chines enable speeds of two hundred
blows a minute to be delivered, and

322

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

NEW MONARCH HAMMER, DRIVING PILING FOR RETAINING WALL, MUNICIPAL BUILDING.
HENRY J. MCCOY COMPANY, NEW YORK

their compactness and power have ma-
terially aided in the commercial use
of sheet piling in general building
work. While it is desirable that a
pile hammer should be operated be-
tween fixed leaders, the self-contained
feature of the modern machines enable
them to be suspended from chain

hoists or derricks, and thus employed
in situations in which the erection of
timber leaders would be difficult or
costly. The small head room required
by these modern machines has proved
desirable, as permitting the use of
longer piles than could otherwise be
driven in some contracted situations.

THE SCOTTISH GRANITE INDUSTRY

By William Diack

FOR more than a century now
Aberdeenshire has been the
centre of the granite industry
of Britain. In Cornwall and Cum-
berland, in Kirkcudbrightshire and
Argyllshire some interesting work
has been produced in this refractory
rock, but it is in the "Silver City by
the Sea" that the art of granite cut-
ting has reached its highest stage of
development. It was here that the
art of polishing granite was re-dis-
covered after it had been lost for
more than thirty centuries. It is in
Aberdeenshire, too, that one finds the
largest and best equipped quarries in
Britain, and it is the products of the
Aberdeen stoneyards that have car-
ried the fame of British granite to
the furthest ends of the earth. Sar-
cophagi of Aberdeenshire granite
hold the dust of kings and emperors.
On the South African veldt and on
the desert wastes of Atbara, artis-
tically designed memorials hewn out
of this stubborn rock mark the last
resting places of soldier heroes. In
our great cities at home one sees
monuments of Aberdeenshire granite
that may well out-last the fame of
the statesmen whose deeds they com-
memorate. In our great public build-
ings magnificent polished columns of
Peterhead granite take a notable
place in the decorative scheme, and
on the spacious streets and squares
of continental capitals striking ex-
amples of Aberdeenshire granite
work may also be seen. For wharves
and dock-work it still holds its own,
in spite of the competition, which
grows keener every day, from the
quarries of Norway and Sweden,
while on scores of lighthouses around
the coast the waves beat harmlessly

against enduring walls of Aberdeen-
shire granite. In the quarries as in
the polishing yards, machinery now-
adays plays a notable part. In the
early years of last century granite
was quarried and cut by laborious
methods which differed little, if at
all, from the system in vogue among
the old Egyptians thirty centuries
ago. But in quarrying operations to-
day powerful rock drills driven by
steam, compressed air or electricity
have displaced the hand "jumpers"
of former days, and in a modern
quarry manual labour has been re-
duced to a minimum.

The general appearance of a
modern rock drill is well known. It
consists of a cylinder in which a pis-
ton is made to move upwards and
downwards, by means of steam or
compressed air. At the lower end of
the piston is a head chuck into which
the drill bit is fitted, the whole being
secured to a powerful tripod frame
heavily weighted. These drills are
capable of delivering 400 strokes per
minute, and will bore a hole from
2 in. to 3 in. in diameter through
the solid rock at a speed of eight feet
per hour, piercing downwards if
necessary to a depth of 25 feet. The
drill bits are made of various sizes.
For commencing a hole one of 9 in.
long and 2>Ya m- m diameter will
suffice. Then as the hole grows
deeper, this is replaced by a longer
one, a new bit being put in with every
additional foot of rock drilled. To
facilitate the working, the diameter
of the drill becomes gradually smaller
as the hole grows deeper, and by the
time a depth of 20 or 25 feet is
reached may be reduced from 3% in.
at the top to 2 in. at the bottom.

zi%

324

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

The saving of time and labour by
means of these drills is remarkable
By means of these appliances one
man in a single hour can do as
much work as a drilling squad of
three men could do in a whole sum-
mer's day. Not only so, but the
work is done much more efficiently,
for, as will be readily understood, it
is almost a physical impossibility to

slowly dislodges the piece of rock so
that the least possible damage is done
by the explosive to the finely grained
granite.

Sometimes, however, when a larger
block than usual is required, firing
by mine is resorted to. A few years
ago a gigantic blast of this kind took
place at Kemnay quarries, some six
teen miles from Aberdeen. The rock

TWENTY-TON ELECTRIC CRANE AT RUBISLAW QUARRY

drill a hole 20 feet deep by means of
manual labour.

The number of holes necessary to
dislodge a piece of rock varies, of
course, according to its size — as many
as a dozen may sometimes be re-
quired, though three or four will usu-
ally suffice. Into these holes charges
of coarse gunpowder are placed, as
higher grade explosives would shat-
ter the rock too much. The "shot"
is fired by electricity and the amount
of powder used is so accurately
gauged that the rock is not at first
dislodged, but rather riven asunder,
a deep fissure perhaps not more than
half an inch in width being formed
at the back of the massive boulder
about to be quarried. Into this aper-
ture a second charge of powder is
placed, and this when exploded

was first pierced from the face with
a horizontal tunnel extending all
along the length of the mass of
granite about to be quarried. Jut-
ting out from this tunnel smaller side
tunnels were cut along the intended
line of rupture. Into the tunnels
were placed two and a half tons of
gunpowder, the different charges be-
ing fired simultaneously by means of
electricity. By this means 70,000
tons of granite were quarried by a
single blast. Some idea of the mass
of granite thus dislodged may be
gathered from the fact that nearly
3,000 railway wagons were required
for its transport on a single train
over 30 miles in length.

When the shots have been fired,
the stones are cleared away as
quickly as possible from the floor

THE SCOTTISH GRANITE INDUSTRY

325

of the quarry — the larger blocks
for monumental and engineering
work, the smaller stones for build-
ing purposes, curbing and paving
sets. Even the stones which
the builders have rejected are not
wasted. In some of the quarries
the chips and spalls are ground into
dust and used for making "adamant"
and other kinds of artificial paving.
The stones are lifted from the bot-
tom of the quarry, and conveyed to
the loading banks by means of aerial
cableways and powerful steam or
electric cranes. These "blondins" or
cableways are an interesting feature
of the Aberdeenshire quarries, and
greatly facilitate operations, particu-
larly in the deeper openings. The
cableway was first used in quarrying
work by the late Mr. John Fyfe
of Kemnay; indeed it is generally
claimed that the "blondin" tackle was
invented by this famous Scottish
quarry-master. Certain it is, he de-
signed the first modern cableway in
Scotland, and he often told with
pride how one of his old employees,
now a leading quarry-master in the
United States, saw this ingenious
contrivance at work at Kemnay when
on a visit to his native land, and on
his return to America promptly
utilized it for quarrying work in the
contracts on which he was then en-
gaged. Thus the "blondin" soon be-
came as familiar a feature in the
quarries of the United States as it is
to-day in Britain. The "blondin" is
constructed on the principle of the
suspension bridge. A massive wire
cable stretches from the farther edge
of the quarry right across the pit,
and over a lofty tower beyond the
loading bank. Both ends of this
rope are, of course, securely an-
chored. On this cable runs a travel-
ing carriage driven to and fro by a
winding engine. To the carriage are
affixed a traveling rope and a hoist-
ing rope. The hoisting rope may be
lowered at any point required and
attached to the huge blocks of granite
or to the loads of chips and refuse.
These can then be raised, if neces-

sary, from a depth of 200 to 300
feet, drawn along the cableway and
deposited on the loading bank or at
whatever point may be required. In
Mr. Fyfe's quarries at Kemnay, one
of these "blondin" transporters has a
span of 945 feet and is capable of
lifting a load of 8 tons. At Sclattie,
in the vicinity of Aberdeen, a "blon-
din" with a span of 575 feet and a
lifting capacity of 12 tons dips into
the bowels of the quarry. The "blon-
din" is now in almost universal use
in the quarrying trade at home and
abroad, and has also been success-
fully employed at the building of the
Vauxhall and Kew bridges in Lon-
don, as well as in other important en-
gineering undertakings.

In most of the Aberdeenshire quar-
ries steam is the usual motive power,
but at Rubisiaw this has been dis-
placed by electricity, the supply being
taken direct from the Corporation
main. Altogether about 1000 horse-
power electric machinery has been
laid down with highly satisfactory re-
sults. A complete air compressing
plant driven by 100 horse-power elec-
tric motor has been installed for
working the rock drills and the
smaller hand drills used for splitting
and "blocking" into shape the larger
masses of granite. Electric motors
are also fitted into each of the cranes,
one of which is capable of lifting a
load of 20 tons from a depth of over
300 feet.

Those whose steps may be directed
by business or pleasure towards the
Granite City may spend a profitable
hour or two in visiting one of the
many stoneyards where the native
rock is carved and polished. A
glance at the busy, bustling scene will
serve to show the world-wide rami-
fications of the industry. In the cen-
tre of the yard is a goodly store of
massive blocks of unhewn granite,
not from the quarries of Aber-
deenshire only, but from Norway.
Sweden and Russia as well. Import-
ing granite to Aberdeen may seem
like "carrying coals to Newcastle,"
but nevertheless the amount of

326

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

A GRANITE SAW AT WORK

foreign material which entered the
stone-yards of Aberdeen last year
was no less than 27,000 tons — and
1908 may be taken as a normal year
in this respect. From the great hills
of granite on the rock-bound coasts
of Sweden and Norway huge blocks
of stone may be obtained with much
less trouble and expense than, say,
from the neighbouring quarries at
Peterhead, some 40 miles distant. In
busy seasons, when the demand for

big blocks of granite has been greater
than the local quarries could cope
with, the Aberdeen granite merchants
have very readily taken advantage ot
the foreign supplies available. More-
over, the greater variety of colour
and quality of granite thus obtained
is, of course, distinctly advantageous
from a decorative point of view.

By means of steam derricks or
traveling cranes, the rough blocks of
granite are quickly transported to

THE SCOTTISH GRANITE INDUSTRY

3^7

GRANITE POLISHING MACHINERY

the work sheds, there to be cut, sawn
or turned into stately columns, richly
carved crosses or elaborately polished
memorials. The granite "saw" is one
of the most interesting appliances in
an up-to-date stone-yard. It has no
teeth like an ordinary saw, but its
construction and manner of working
are exceedingly simple. The block
of stone about to be cut is first placed

on a massive "bogey" or carriage
and wheeled underneath the saw.
The saw itself is simply a strong
steel blade about half an inch thick
and two or three feet longer than
the stone about to be sawn. The
lower edge is perfectly smooth and
even, the actual cutting being done
by an abrasive in the shape of "iron
sand" or grit — small rough grains of

328

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

chilled metal not unlike round shot.
Propelled by steam, the heavy saw
swings backwards and forwards over
the surface of the stone, pressing
heavily the while on the grit. Water
is freely poured into the saw-cut, and
soon with the grit and dust forms a
thick sludge, which is steadily ladled
into the rut by the workmen in
charge. It can scarcely be said that
granite sawing is a rapid process. In
the early days of the industry when
ordinary sand was used as an abra-
sive, the cutting of a block of granite
four to five feet in depth occupied not
days but weeks. Even now, with
more powerful appliances, it takes
two busy days of ten hours each to
saw a block of granite 4 feet in
depth and say 5 feet in length. The
operation, however, is a profitable
one, for immediately the work is
finished the two sawn surfaces are
ready for polishing without any
manual labour whatever on the part
of the granite cutter. Moreover, by
means of the saw, blocks as thin as
3 in. or 4 in. may be easily obtained,
thus effecting a considerable saving,
both of labour and material.

For polishing granite, machinery is,
of course, very largely used nowa-
days. Quite a revolution has been
effected in the industry in this re-
spect since the days when Alexander
Macdonald, son of a Perthshire
crofter, re-discovered the long-lost
secret and founded the granite polish-
ing industry of Aberdeen seventy
years ago. It was in 1832 that Mr.
Macdonald dispatched the first pol-
ished granite monument from Aber-
deen to London, and it still stands
in Kensal Green Cemetery as bright
and glossy as on the day it was first
erected. At that time the actual pol-
ishing was all done by manual labour
— hard, fatiguing work, admirably
adapted for apostles of the strenuous
life. To-day, however, the Jenny
Lind and the Pendulum machine are
in general use in the granite yards
of Britain and America. In the
actual polishing, three simple proc-
esses are involved. If the surface to

be polished is a plane, the block of
granite is fixed to a massive frame
and placed with the face uppermost
underneath the polishing machine.
By means of circular metal discs, all
connected with one another and re-
volving rapidly on the same plane,
iron grit and sludge is rubbed firmly
over the surface until comparative
smoothness is obtained. Emery pow-
der is then substituted for the grit,
and the polishing process continued
until a dull gloss begins to show it-
self on the surface of the stone. All
the sludge and emery is next washed
carefully off, and by means of wet
felt attached to the revolving metal
discs, the surface is vigorously pol-
ished with putty powder — generally
oxide of tin or tripoli — and the rich
and beautiful gloss so much admired
is at last obtained. For polishing
mouldings a different process has, of
course, to be adopted. A metal cast
of the moulding is first made, and is
firmlv secured to a long- overhead
wrought iron arm. The moulding is
placed in position and propelled by
machinery, the iron arm with casting
attached swings backward and for-
ward over the iron sand or emery
with a pendulum-like motion from
which the machine derives its name.
When elaborately carved work has to
be polished, the primitive method of
hand-rubbing with sludge and emery
paste must perforce be adopted. The
process is slow and the work labori-
ous, but nevertheless a considerable
amount of beautifully polished carved
work is exported from Aberdeen to
the Continent annually.

In the Carlton Club in London, in
St. George's Hall, Liverpool, and in
many famous public buildings in
England and elsewhere one may see
remarkably fine examples of granite
columns turned and polished in Aber-
deenshire stone-yards. The process
of transforming rough, unhewn boul-
ders from Rubislaw or Stirling-
hill into these gorgeously polished
columns and capitals is an exceed-
ingly interesting one. The huge
block of stone, perhaps 15 to 18 feet

THE SCOTTISH GRANITE INDUSTRY

329

in length and 4 feet in diameter, is
first hewn roughly with blocking
hammer, mall and puncheon into
something approaching the requited
shape. This done, it is conveyed by
means of a powerful traveling crane
to the turning lathe. In this lathe
the actual cutting is done by two cir-
cular cast steel discs, placed on oppo-
site sides of the column so that the
pressure of the one acts a counter-

to fifteen granite cutters working by
hand, and by means of them elabor-
ately moulded capitals as well as
stately columns are cut and turned.
When the column or capital has been
fashioned into the required shape on
the turning lathe and a comparatively
smooth surface obtained, it is re-
moved to an ordinary lathe and
polished with iron sand and emery
in the manner already described, the

TURNING A COLUMN OF GRANITE IN A LATHE

poise to the other. Through a hole
in the centre of the cutter is placed
a spindle with a boss, and this is
screwed tightly tip within the tapered
opening. The column is turned by
steam power, and as it moves stead-
ily round, it gives a rotary motion to
the cutters. The cutters strike the
stone at an oblique angle, and soon
a dull, grinding noise tells that the
roughly hewn column is being slowly
but surely fashioned into the required
shape. As the circumference of the
column becomes gradually smaller,
the cutters are screwed still more
tightly on to the revolving mass of
granite. These powerful lathes are
capable of doing the work of twelve

materials being applied by means of
cast iron plates shaped to fit the
column.

As in the engineering, shipbuild-
ing and allied industries, pneumatic
tools are now largely used in granite
cutting. Most of these are of Ameri-
can origin, although some of the
most successful types have been de-
signed and fitted up by Aberdeen en-
gineers. For rough dressing work
the "surfacing machine" is admir-
ably adapted, although its strenuous,
slap-dash manner of working is apt
to "stun" the stone and thus destroy
the beauty of the polished surface.
The stone about to be "dressed" is
first puncheoned down by hand to

33°

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

PNEUMATIC GRANITE SURFACING MACHINE

within an inch or so of the required
level. Then the surfacing machine is
brought into requisition. In general
appearance this machine reminds one
of a miniature portable crane with an
extending arm on which travels a
carriage securely holding a large pneu-
matic hammer. Into the hammer a
rough pointing tool is inserted and the
air pressure applied. Soon a loud
whirring noise tells that this wonder-
ful stone-dresser has begun to do its

work, and as the tool is moved back-
wards and forwards, to and fro, over
the surface of the stone, the operator
is enveloped in a cloud of dust and
miniature chips. The rough surface
is quickly reduced to comparative
smoothness. A finer brush chisel is
then inserted in the machine, and by
this means a fine, even surface is
quickly obtained — a surface suitable
either for polishing or for finely axed
work. Under proper conditions these

THE SCOTTISH GRANITE INDUSTRY

33i

CARVING GRANITE WITH PNEUMATIC TOOLS

surfacing machines will point and
brush 50 to 80 superficial feet per
day.

For finer carving, lettering and
decorative work generally, pneumatic
tools now form an indispensable part
of the plant of every well-equipped
granite yard. The use of compressed
air in stone cutting has reduced con-
siderably the cost of high-class
granite work and has opened up a
wider field for the products of the
Aberdeenshire stone-yards. With a
pneumatic tool one granite cutter can
do as much work as from four to six
men hewing and carving by the old-
fashioned methods, much, of course,
depending on the nature of the work.
To readers of Cassier's Magazine
there is, of course, no need to de-
scribe in detail the compressed air
plant of a modern workshop. The
air required to operate the tools is
conveyed from the air compressor to
the granite cutting sheds in metal
piping. At convenient points these
main pipes are tapped and the air
conveyed to the operator in rubber
tubes in the manner shown in the
illustration. The pneumatic hammers
are capable of delivering from 2,000

to 15,000 strokes per minute, and
with them deft and skillful workmen
may be seen fashioning with marvel-
ous facility the hardest of granite.
Classic examples of statuary, carved
Runic crosses, wreaths of flowers,
figures of bird and beast in bold re-
lief— all these are produced with as
much ease as from the softest of Italian
marbles. But though the introduc-
tion of steam and compressed air has
revolutionized the granite industry, a
large amount of first-class work is
still done by hand. In this case the
stone is first puncheoned down to a
rough surface and then finished off
with chisels, axes and bush hammers,
as may be required.

To mention even but a modest pro-
portion of the famous granite monu-
ments which have been executed in re-
cent years would fill many pages and
still leave much untold. A few ex-
amples may, however, be selected as
showing the high stage of develop-
ment which has been been reached
by the Aberdeenshire granite cutters.
Not the least interesting of these is
the carved monolith in granite exe-
cuted by command of the late
Oueen Victoria and erected at Bal-

332

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

moral in memory of the late Prince
Henry of Battenberg. The beauti-
ful sarcophagus, too, which holds the
dust of Queen Victoria and the late
Prince Consort was executed, many
years ago now, in Aberdeenshire
granite, and was at the time regarded
as the best work of the kind ever
produced in Britain. But the in-
dustry has made rapid strides since
these early days. Many military
memorials have also been dispatched
to South Africa during the past half
dozen years. A lofty obelisk of
Peterhead granite marks the spot
overlooking the little cemetery at
Majesfontein where General Wau-
chope, the gallant commander of the
Highland Brigade, lies buried. The
graves of Prince Christian Victor,
General Woodgate and valiant Dick
Cunningham are also marked by
memorials of Scottish granite. In

recent years, too, some remarkably
fine examples of granite statuary
have been produced by Aberdeen
stone-cutters. More than thirty years
ago Me.ssrs. Alexander Macdonald
& Co., revived that long-lost art, the
statue of the last Duke of Gordon,
which stands in the Castlegate of
Aberdeen, being the first statue cut in
granite since the days of the Ptole-
mies. Another example is found in
the handsome military memorial
erected in South Africa in memory of
the men of the Cape Mounted Rifles
who fell in the Anglo-Boer War. It
takes the form of the statue of a rifle-
man in full regimentals standing on a
fluted Ionic column flanked on either
side by African lions. This memorial,
executed by Mr Taylor, Jute Street,
may be justly described as the finest
military memorial ever produced in an
Aberdeenshire granite yard.

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THE STEAM TURBINE IN THE GERMAN NAVY

By Fr. Bock

ALTHOUGH it is only a few
years since the steam turbine
was introduced into Germany,
it has made its way rapidly.
Already in stationary power plants the
turbine has largely replaced the recip-
rocating engine, while torpedo boats
and cruisers are being equipped, and
the turbine will doubtless also be used
exclusively for battle-ship propulsion.

In the spring of 1904 the Allge-
meine Elektrizitats Gesellschaft com-
menced the construction of steam tur-
bines, and at the present time this
company employs 2,500 men in this
department. Turbines as large as
12,000 horse-power have been con-
structed, and at the present time more
than 120 turbo electric generating sets
of 1,000 kilowatt capacity have been
installed.

Having this extensive experience,
the company has undertaken the con-
struction of marine steam turbines,
and the success obtained with the
Curtis type for land service has con-
vinced them of its availability for use
at sea. The first vessel equipped with
the Curtis turbine by this company
was the steamer Kais,er, of the Ham-
burg-American line, this vessel having
been constructed in 1905 at the Vulcan
yards, at Stettin. The good results
obtained with this boat led the Im-
perial Navy to try the system for tor-
pedo boats, and subsequently for a
cruiser. The engines designed for
this service were thoroughly tried out
in the testing room of the A. E. G.
turbine department, and the trial trips
of the boat, made in the autumn of
1908, were entirely satisfactory, the
vessel exceeding the guaranteed con-
tract speed of 30 knots by 3 knots.
In consequence of this success a num-

ber of torpedo boats for the German
Navy are being equipped with turbine
propulsion.

At the German Marine Exposition
the A. E. G. had an exhibit of the
engine room of a torpedo boat, show-
ing the simplicity of the steam tur-
bine equipment for this service. In
this exhibit was also shown the appli-
cation of the steam turbine for the
operation of all auxiliaries, demon-
strating the advantages of the substi-
tution of the noiseless turbine for the
old-fashioned reciprocating auxiliary
machinery.

The cruiser Mains, built by the
Vulcan works at Stettin, was the first
cruiser of the German Navy to be
equipped with the steam turbine, and
every effort of the A. E. G. works
was strained to complete its machinery
within the allotted time. The Mains
was the first turbine cruiser to be fitted
with only two shafts, all previous ves-
sels of this kind having had three or
four shafts. The use of two shafts
permits an essential simplification of
the machinery and its operation. The
vessel is naturally much stiffer with
the latter construction, and as each
shaft has its own complete turbine
they are independent of each other.
The general arrangement of the A. E.
G. turbine in a cruiser engine room is
clearly shown in the illustration, this
representing in general the arrange-
ment adopted in the Kaiser and in the
torpedo boats. The casing is divided
into two parts, with the high-pressure
turbine forward, and the low-pressure
and reversing turbines aft, with a sup-
porting bearing for the shaft between.
In the high-pressure section the steam
passes through a series of similar
wheels, as in the ordinary A. E. G.

333

334

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

TORPEDO BOAT V.161, OF THE GERMAN NAVY J 6,000 HORSE-POWER, 560 REVOLUTIONS

turbine, while in the low-pressure por-
tion the expansion continues from one
series of blades to another, there being
a continual conversion of pressure into
kinetic energy.

In the high-pressure portion there
are separate partitions in the casing,
each constituting a separate element,
while in the low-pressure section the
expansion takes place in the blades^
Consequently the pressure of the
steam acts to oppose the thrust of the
screw when starting, and a similar
action occurs in the reversing turbine.
The parts are so proportioned that the

thrust of the propeller is practically
balanced when the engines are run-
ning at full speed.

The temperature of the steam in the
two portions of the turbine has been
taken into account in the design of
the machinery. In the high-pressure
end the expansion of parts, due to high
temperature, demands corresponding
provision for both radial and longi-
tudinal expansion. The rapid fall of
temperature in the low-pressure por-
tion has also to be taken care of, the
expansion of the steam here taking
place after its pressure has been util-

MODEL OF THE STEAM TURBINES OF THE CRUISER MAINZ, BUILT FOR THE GERMAN NAVY BY THE
VULCAN WORKS AT STETTIN, AND ENGINED BY THE ALLGEMEINE ELEKTRICITATS
GESELLSCHAFT

MARINE TURBINES

335

3tf

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

TURBINE ENGINE FOR TORPEDO BOAT V.161, IN TESTING ROOM OF A. E. G. WORKS AT BERLIN;
6,000 HORSE-POWER, 560 REVOLUTIONS

TESTING ROOM OF THE A. E. G., SHOWING ON THE RIGHT ONE OF THE TURBINE ENGINES OF THE

"MAINZ," 12,000 HORSE-POWER. IN THE BACKGROUND IS A TURBO-DYNAMO OF

8,000 HORSE-POWER FOR NEWCASTLE, ENGLAND

MARINE TURBINES

337

ARRANGEMENT OF A. E. G. MARINE STEAM TURBINES

ized in the high-pressure section, and
the corresponding economy effected.

It is in these features that the A. E.
G. turbine differs from the earlier ma-
chines. The Curtis marine turbine is
still constructed without the expan-
sion steps in the low-pressure portion,
while the Parsons turbine has not yet
made use of the short dimension ar-
rangement in the high-pressure por-
tion which has been found possible in
these wheels.

The A. E. G. turbines are note-

worthy for their solid construction)
and for the high grade of material
employed. The severe tests which
every part must undergo indicates the
high standard of construction and
material insisted upon.

The results which have been at-
tained with these marine turbines
prove that the simplification in the
machinery involved in the .separate
shaft units is accompanied with no
greater steam consumption than with
other turbine systems, even in cruis-

SEF_

„,,. ,«„,, &

STAKBoATU)

ENGINE ROOM FOR CRUISER, WITH TWO A. E. G. TURBINE SETS OF 12,000 HORSE-POWER EACH.

AT 330 REVOLUTIONS

4-4

33§

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

EXHIBIT OF TURBINE MARINE ENGINES AT THE GERMAN MARINE EXPOSITION, SHOWING
TURBINE-DRIVEN AUXILIARIES

ing and in short voyages. Similar the behaviour of the machinery, has

results will doubtless follow with the contributed much to the success of

Mains. Doubtless the testing depart- the marine steam turbines which have

ment of the A. E. G., fitted with all been constructed at this important

possible appliances for determining establishment.

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

By Lionel Wiener

IV. THE BAHIA INTERMEDIATE SYSTEM

Following out the discussion of the various railway systems of Brazil, commenced in the May issue
ot this Magazine and continued in the numbers for June and July, Mr. Wiener proceeds to examine
the Bahia intermediate system of railways, in which he groups certain land and water routes which

have acquired a certain importance as connecting links with the systems to the north and south.
— The Editor.

THE Bahia Intermediate System there is the Bahia group, and then

in Brazil extends both along a gap in the South. The group it-

the coast and inland, reaching self is heterogeneous, and is made up

the Sao Francisco River in several of Northern, Western and Southern

places ; it is made up of a number lines, radiating from the Bay of

of independent railways and water- Bahia.

ways, of which the total has become The Northern lines are :

sufficiently important to warrant the The BaWa & Sao Frandsco Ra.]way ^Miies

construction of connections with tne Timbo Branch 129

• 1 1 -i i^„,„ ,,,,'+1-, The Sao Francisco Railway from Alagoinhas

neighbouring railway systems — with to joazeiro 232

the Great Western in the North, and The Western lines :

With the Victoria and MinaS in the The Central of Bahia Railway and Branches. 198

" Ihe Central Western Railway of Bahia 33

South. The Santa Amaro & Jacu Railway 23

The gradual grouping of the iso- The Southern line:

lated roads into more powerful The Nazareta Tram-Road Company 162

groups or companies, in obedience to The Northern Railways of

the economic law of evolution which Bahia.

is so interesting to follow in its' de- The lines of the Northern group

velopment, is here exemplified in two work together, the Bahia & Sao

phases. In the North this appears Francisco and the Central Railway

in the working together of the sev- because they are leased to the same

eral lines, which is the second stage ; people, Messrs. Lima and Carvalho,

in the South, as a recent amalgama- and the Sao Francisco Railway be-

tion, which is the third stage. cause it cannot help it.

Bahia, the capital of the State, is a The Bahia & Sao Francisco Rail-
town of some importance, being the way is the most important of the lot ;
fourth in size in Brazil, and stands it is the parent line, built to the 5-
at the head of a bay, where harbour foot 3-inch gauge, and operated at
works of considerable magnitude have 67.2 per cent, of the gross earnings,
been undertaken. It is one of the The Timbo branch is a recent addi-
soundest harbours of the east coast, tion, from Alagoinhas to Timbo,
and forms the port for the whole of whence the new line to Propria
the State. starts, running further North to-

The railways around Bahia are laid wards the Great Western System,

out in a curious manner. First there This branch is worked at a loss ; in

is the Timbo and Propria line, running fact, the ratio of expenses to gross

from North to South, a part of earnings is 137 per cent,

which only is open to traffic and the Alagoinhas Junction, whence the

remainder under construction ; then Timbo branch starts, is also the

339

340

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

starting point of the Sao Francisco
Railway, a long line to Joazeiro,
without any branches and operated at
a profit.

The Bahia & Sao Francisco Rail-
way will thus have two routes to
that river, although itself it runs
nowhere near it. In time, however,
it may reach the river due west
through the Central Railway, since
the Sao Francisco River describes a
long curve about Bahia as a centre.
The Bahia & Sao Francisco Rail-
way was by no means easy to build,
and it is the outcome of the old
rivalry between Recife and Bahia,
both towns wishing to reach the Sao
Francisco River. Both lines were
started about i860, but neither has
reached the river, there still being a
gap, although extensions have been
added. There are three tunnels on
the main line and a large bridge,
1,790 feet long, composed of a num-
ber of 70-foot arches over the
Pojuca. This railway carries a large
quantity of tobacco, some 4,100 tons,
and more than 10,500 tons of wheat
and other cereals. The Timbo
branch was built in 1887, being con-
structed to the metre gauge.

The government has taken in hand
the further extension of this line
and handed the task of building it
over to the Railway Study and Con-
struction Committee. A complete
survey of the route was made in
1906 by Mr. Greenlagh ; the plans
were sanctioned in 1907, and the
first section has been opened. Two
of the long penetration lines now in
construction are in the hands of the
well-known engineers, Messrs. Green-
lagh & Schnoor.

The construction of these long in-
land lines is a very difficult matter
compared to work elsewhere. The
first thing to be done is to draw up
some kind of a map of the country,
which is still almost wholly unex-
plored, and try to get through some-
how. The correct position of Goyaz,
the capital, was first astronomically
determined by Greenlagh, who
showed that most of the maps were

from half a degree to a degree in
error.

The new line runs from Timbo to
Atalaya, on the Great Western Sys-
tem, with a break at the Sao Fran-
cisco River, which will be crossed
in ferries. The system will be made
up as follows :

Miles

Timbo to Propria, main line 216

Collegio, opposite to Atalaya 94

Simao Dias Branch 62

N. S. das Dores Branch 19

390

Included in the rolling stock of the
Timbo and Propria line is a fine ten-
wheel passenger locomotive, built by
the American Locomotive Company,
weighing 79,500 pounds, and having
cylinders 16 X 20 inches, operating
at 160 pounds pressure. The boiler
has 896 square feet of heating sur-
face, and the fire-box is designed for
burning wood exclusively; the tender
carrying 2,600 gallons of water and
3}i cords of wood. The equipment
of rolling stock is still incomplete,
and hence a full account cannot be
given.

The Bahia Central Railway is
leased by the same company as the
Bahia and Sao Francisco, from
which it is still separated. These
two railways, therefore, are two sec-
tions of a system rather than two
separate concerns. This road was
decreed in January, 1866, and the
Paraguassu Steam Train Road Com-
pany was floated during the follow-
ing year to build and operate it. The
Province of Bahia subscribed a part
of the capital, but notwithstanding
this assistance, the company got into
difficulties, and the road passed into
other hands on September 26, 1872.
The Province of Bahia granted a
guarantee of 7 per cent, interest to
the new company, which was able to
proceed with the work of construc-
tion, starting from Sao Felix and
Cachceira, on opposite banks of the
Paraguassu River, at no great dis-
tance from the capital.

The first line runs due west to
Bandeira de Mello, following the
stream all the way, with a short

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

34i

branch to Olho d'Auga, just before
reaching the terminal. The second
section runs northward from Cach-
ceira to Feira Santa Anna, passing
two miles from Sao Gencalo, and
being connected to it by a short
branch. The banks of the Para-
guassu River are very steep, and the
first section from the river to the
neighbouring heights was a very
difficult one along both lines. A
grade of 1 in 30, slightly heavier
than the usual one of 1 in 33, was
used on this portion to overcome the
following banks: Dis. Eleya.

tance tion

miles feet

Sao Felix Cachceira (west sec.) 3 400

Cachceira to Belera (north sec.) 5 510

Belem to Serra (north sec.) 2J^ 165

The northern line was built in
1876; the western one later, in 1881,
to Serra Grande, and continued in
successive sections. The company is
undertaking important extensions to
both sections : one to join the Sao
Francisco at Alagoinhas, the other
penetrating deeper into the hinter-
land. The surveys have been ap-
proved by the government, and the
work is well in hand ; it will add 190
miles, thus doubling the length of
the system.

On this line the average distance
traveled is only 28 miles for each
passenger, as against 91 miles on the
Sao Francisco Railway, but there is
every reason to believe that this will
improve as the line is lengthened.

Both companies pay a tax to the
government, besides 10 per cent, of
the gross earnings and 20 per cent.
of the net earnings. The Central
Railway of Bahia has recently been
bought back, with the idea of form-
ing it into a system with some other
lines, but the State has thus far re-
tained it, with Messrs. Lima and
Carvalho as temporary lessees, who
are operating it at 75 per cent, of
the gross earnings. This is the only
line in Brazil with the 3-foot 6-inch
gauge, and it is bound to be con-
verted to the metre gauge as soon as
connection with any other line is
opened up. Such connection has

not yet taken place, because both
the Central of Bahia and the Naza-
reth Tram-Road Company have been
stopped by the cliffs near the coast.
As a matter of fact, the Centre West
of Bahia Railway runs from the
neighbourhood of the capital west-
ward, skirting the bay to Bom Jardin
(34 miles) ; and the Jacu and Santa
Amaro Railway (23 miles) reaches
Santa Amaro. But there is still a
gap of 25 miles to Cachceira, with
the cliffs to be overcome.

The splitting up of the line be-
tween so many companies is partly
responsible for the existing situation,
because such small concerns have
lacked either the power or the capital
to build the last link.

The company is dependent for its
earnings mainly upon the tobacco
crop, the Bahia region producing
tobacco in large quantities. In 1907
the Central of Bahia Railway carried
no less than 12,479 tons °f the weed,
this forming more than one-third of
the total tonnage. The balance con-
sisted principally of aguardente,
coffee, xarque (a special kind of
dried meat), cereals and salt in about
equal proportions of two or three
thousand tons. The goods traffic
contributed about 77 per cent, of the
gross earnings. Although the lion's
share of the tobacco crop is carried
by the Bahia Central Railway, the
neighbouring railways secure a con-
siderable portion of it, the Bahia and
Sao Francisco carrying more than
four thousand tons.

The greater part of the rolling
stock was made in England, this
including nearly all of the loco-
motives, of which the company owns
22, together with 60 out of the 63
coaches. In addition the company
owns 8 vans and 492 wagons, of
which two-thirds came from the
United States and the remainder
from Belgium.

The Victoria and Minas Railway.

The Victoria and Minas Company
comprises two separate undertak-
ings— the Victoria and Diamantina

342

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Railway, a western penetration line,
and the South of Bahia Railway, an
interesting connecting line running
parallel to the coast for a consider-
able distance. As along the north
coast, there are a number of inward
means of communication, these run-
ning due west, in a direction at right
angles to the coast.

South of Bahia, there is first the
small port of Ilheos, whence a
railway starts, aiming to reach Con-
quisto, and now having 31 miles
open. Then comes the town of Cara-
veiras, where two important naviga-
ble rivers meet — one, the Rio Pardo,
navigable up to the town of that
name, and the other the Rio Jequeti-
henha, navigable up to Arassuahy.

Porto Axeia, on the coast, comes
next, this being connected with Theo-
phile Ottoni by the Bahia and Minas
Railway, 235 miles in length ; and
lastly comes Lenhares, near the
mouth of the Rio Doce, connected
by boat with Figueira and Derubbe-
dinia up-stream, where the new line
will pass.

It was the intention of the govern-
ment to connect the inland termini of
these railways and river lines, link-
ing up the Central Railway of Brazil
with the South through Derubbe-
dinia, and Theophile Ottoni with
Jecquie and the Bahia system in the
North. This line is similar to the
St. Luiz, Caxias and Great Western
Railway, in the Northern States, but
it is longer and more useful. It has
been incorporated with the Victoria
and Minas Company, who have had
it thoroughly surveyed by Dr.
Schnorr, whom we have already
mentioned as a leading engineer.

The line would work out as fol-
lows :

, Miles

Jecquie to Conquista (terminal of the Ilheos

& Conquista) 137

Conquista to Fortalezza 144

Fortalezza to Arassuahy 130

Arassuahy to Theophile Ottoni (Bahia &

Minas Terminal) 117

Theophile Ottoni to Derubbedinia (Victoria

& Minas Junct.) 129

657

The probable traffic has been com-
puted as follows: The estimated

population along the line is about
300,000. The local passenger traffic
is estimated at 10 per cent, of this,
or, say, 30,000 passengers, or at
3,809,375 passenger miles, yielding
£26,666 (at 70 reis per kilometre).
Goods traffic is estimated at 45,000
tons, or 5,631,250 ton-miles, bringing
in £112,265 (at 200 reis per ton-
kilometre). Adding through night
trains from Rio to Bahia, say 150
trains in the year, at £250 each, or
£37,500, besides £9,375 for lug-
srasre, the total would be :

& ^ Per Mile

Passengers (local) £26,666 £41

Goods 112,635 172J4

Luggage 9,375 14^4

Through trains 37,500 57^4

£186,166 £285

This would compare as follows with
the other Bahia lines :

Receipts Expenses

per mile per mile

Bahia & Sao Francisco £851^ £687

Timbo Branch 125 187

Sao Francisco Railway.... 254 237

Central of Bahia 299 238

Nazareth Maine Line 476 367

Taking the expenses at £250 per
mile, this would leave a bonus of
£21,875 a year.

I have quoted this way of ascer-
taining the probable working ex-
penses and receipts of a new line,
because it is an interesting example
of how these items are computed in
Brazil. Capital from other countries
is called upon to a considerable ex-
tent to furnish funds for a number
of Brazilian undertakings, and hence
the above example may be of some
use. It will be interesting to see
the extent to which these predictions
will be fulfilled.

The trains from Rio to Bahia
would run over the company's own
tracks to Jecquie, whence they would
continue over the line of the Naza-
reth Tram-Road Company's line to
Nazareth, not far from Bahia. This
latter line, originally a tram-road, is
now a regular railway line, in the
hands of a British company, holding a
stadoal lease. It starts from Naza-
reth, on the cliffs bordering the Bay
of Bahia, and runs southward to
Jecquie, a distance of 162 miles

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

343

through Sao Igniez. There is a
branch to Areia, where the line forms
a complete loop, entering the town
by the north and leaving it by the
south, this being 18 miles long. As
an extension of the Rio line the
Nazareth Tram-Road may become of
considerable importance.

The other line of the Victoria and
Minas Railway, known as the Vic-
toria and Diamantina Railway, is
open to traffic for a considerable dis-
tance, and is still being constructed
beyond. It starts from Victoria Har-
bour, the capital of the small State
of Espirito Santo, and runs to Nativ-
idade, on the Minas frontier at the
point where it is crossed by the Rio
Doce, a distance of 130 miles. This
stretch was probably the most costly
to build in the country owing to the
large amount of heavy earthwork re-
quired ; the expenditure reached
£7,241 per mile. The State having
guaranteed £121,513, the liabilities
in 1907 amounted to £113,304. This
portion was worked at a loss, the
expense reaching 116 per cent, of the
earnings in 1907, but the situation
is daily improving with the opening
of new sections. *;.;•

The line follows the, river to
Derubbedinia (216 miles), its pres-
ent terminal, and there crosses it on
a bridge 660 feet in length. Con-
struction work is in hand for a con-
siderable distance beyond, and the
whole line is surveyed. Before the
completion of the line a concession
has already been given for an ex-
tension from Diamantina to Curra-
linho, a station on the main line of
the Central of Brazil Railway. The
Victoria and Diamantina will thus
own a line running from the coast
westward for a considerable distance
inland, with the advantage of having
railway connections at both extremi-
ties.

One of the interesting features
about this line is that it will enable
the exportation of large quantities of
iron ore, of which there is an almost
unlimited supply between the Can-
donga Serra (238 miles), and Itabira

de Matto Dentro. The Brazilian
estimates speak of billions of tons,
and in any case there is certainly an
enormous amount of the very highest
grade of ore here available. I have
already called attention to the extent
to which Brazil, especially the newer
States, offers a field for foreign
enterprise, especially for railway ma-
terial and the opening up of these
large deposits of iron ore should
influence the situation very materi-
ally, both in the export of the ore
and in the development of the iron
manufacturing industry in Brazil
itself.

The growth of such industries
shovdd enable the country gradually
to discontinue the importation of
locomotives and machinery as well as
of structural steel. The new contract
of the Diamantina Railway with the
government, December 20, 1909,
stipulates the reversion of its lines to
the government after 90 years, but
grants the company a number of
privileges in exchange, with a view 10
the development of the deposits of
iron ore.

The company intends the exporta-
tion of between two and three million
tons of iron ore annually, and as it
fears that even with the use of Mal-
let locomotives weighing 60 tons,
having 30,000 pounds tractive power
and hauling 400-ton trains, it will be
unable to cope with this heavy
traffic, it has decided upon the com-
plete electrification of its lines, an
undertaking which must be com-
pleted within three years of the sign-
ing of the contract.

A branch to Itabira de Matte
Dentro will be built immediately into
the heart of the iron ore district.
This is but a short distance from
Santa Barbara, where connection
with the branch of the Central Rail-
way of Brazil may easily be made.
This branch will leave the main line
at Santa Anna de Ferros.

Iron ore will pay the exceedingly
low rate of 0.193d per ton-mile
The company has undertaken to es-
tablish immediately an iron works

344

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

having a minimum capacity of
12,000 tons per annum. This is no
idle clause, the railway having al-
ready closed contracts with an Eng-
lish company for running the works,
besides having a number of ships on
order for carrying the ore to Europe.
This is an example which England
may well follow by shipping iron
ore from Central India, particularly
from the Sandur State, near Mysore,
where large deposits of excellent iron
ore lie undeveloped.

The Victoria and Diamantina Com-
pany's original capital was £ 1,587,-

302 (40,000,000 francs), besides £3,-
174,604 debentures. Another £595,-
238 debentures have been issued for
biulding the Curralinho extension.
The State has guaranteed 6 per cent,
interest (gold) up to a maximum ex-
penditure of £ 1,006 per mile (30
contos per kilometre).

This railway will thus be not only
the first electric railway in South
America, but it will also be one of
the first long-distance lines with
mixed traffic to make use of electric
traction exclusively.

{To be continued.)

.:- -

THE PURCHASING OF MATERIAL

By L. S. Randolph

THE problem of purchasing ma-
terial naturally separates itself
into three divisions : first, the
quantity; second, the quality; third,
the price. These three are inter-re-
lated in a very complex manner, so
complex in fact that the problem of
purchasing the required material for
the least amount of money is beyond
the domain of accurate analysis and
has passed into that wide, indefinite
terra incognita of good judgment
sometimes profanely called guess-
work.

The considerations affecting the
resolution of the problem which are
involved in the question of quantity
are:

1st. The loss on large amounts of
stock or stock carried for a long
time, caused by the loss of interest,
the depreciation and insurance (de-
preciation including the item of ob-
solesence on money invested).

2d. The saving, in the lower price
quoted universally for large orders,
the lower freight rates obtained on
large shipments and the monetary
value of the promptness with which
orders can be filled from large stock.

These two items must be balanced,
the one against the other, so as to
bring about the minimum expendi-
ture. When money is plentiful the
problem can be solved with quite re-
markable accuracy.

When money is not plentiful large
rates of interest, which are difficult
to determine, must be paid. The
loss due to high interest charge
makes the economically carried stock
account small.

It will be readily seen that the
problem with which our investigation
starts admits of no general solution,

but is dependent upon the peculiar
conditions surrounding each estab-
lishment and under which each estab-
lishment is operated.

The modern method of stock keep-
ing gives such accurate control of
the amounts of stock and orders that
it is almost indispensable for the ac-
curate solution of the above problem
and should be used whenever pos-
sible.

In brief this method is as follows :

Each item of stock is listed on a
card of an index and on a similar
card on the bin, giving: the item,
size, grade, minimum stock to be
carried, maximum stock to be car-
ried and amount of order to be placed
when the minimum stock amount has
been reached. The amount of the or-
der is usually the difference between
the minimum and maximum stock re-
quirements.

The demand for stock may be :

1st. Small and certain but at infre-
quent intervals. 2nd. Uniformly con-
stant demand as when the continuous
process of manufacture requires a
continuous supply of material. 3rd.
Large but uncertain demand as where
material is kept on hand to supply
sudden calls for repairs and renewals.

The first and last of the above are
those which are more difficult to
handle. In the majority of cases the
fendency is to carry special stocks too
long and to have them too large. In
the last case particularly large stocks
are only justified by keeping up the
good name of a house or where the
loss of revenue from a shut down is
considerable.

The next item in our problem is
the kind and quality of the material
to be purchased. .

345

346

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

The quality of a material may be
defined as those peculiarities, charac-
teristics or properties which fit it for
the work which it has to perform ; or
having which it is identified as a ma-
terial suitable for the work in hand.
When we say good quality we mean
that the peculiar properties are such
as to fit it in an eminent degree for
the work it has to perform.

It should be understood that the
properties which we observe are not
always those which are valuable or
necessary, but those which can be
used to identify the material which
has those properties which are valu-
able.

For example, it matters little what
the specific gravity of lubricating oil
is, except that an oil with a certain
specific gravity has one of the ele-
ments which identify it as being an
oil with the lubricating properties we
desire. The same thing may be said
of color, taste and smell. In fact,
in the case of lubricating oil the
properties of the coefficient of friction
and durability in service are not sus-
ceptible of sufficiently accurate ob-
servation to be used, but we rely on
those other properties which are used
to identify the oil as one having the
coefficient of friction and durability
we desire. The freezing point of an
oil, like the ultimate tensile strength
of steel, is a direct measure of one
element of its usefulness.

The quality of the material, then,
must be such as will do the work re-
quired of it at the least cost. We
might state this differently and say
that quality is the best which gives
the largest results for the least cost;
as the greatest resilience of a bar of
iron or steel for the least amount of
money.

In determining the value of a lubri-
cant, the sum of the cost of the lu-
bricant used, the cost of the material
worn from the journal and brass and
the cost of the power required to
overcome the friction gives us the
measure of the value of the lubricant.
Careful experiment will show that the
cost per gallon is a very secondary

matter. The tendency to heat should
also be included where that is likely
to occur, as on railroad trains.

One of the most important points
in the purchase of material, the one
most frequently neglected and least
understood, is that the price per unit
is usually the least important factor
in determining the value of a com-
modity.

Under the head of material there
must be considered :

ist. The kind of material.

2nd. The quality of material.

Material is at the present time al-
most always purchased under written
specifications. It matters not, how-
ever, whether the specifications are
written or not ; the principle is the
same, as a specification is merely a
statement of what it is desired to
purchase and will be accepted.

In the draughting of a specification
or the determining of the material to
be purchased the following principal
consideration is involved :

The cost of the material should be
a minimum for the work to be per-
formed, or that which will produce a
minimum of expenditure.

In order to obtain this result care-
ful investigation must be made as to
the cost of the different qualities of
material, in order to determine the
maximum quality for a minimum
.cost.

Thus the cost of bar iron on one

occasion varied with the quality as

follows : ^

Cost

Tensile Elongation, per pound,

strength. per cent. cents.

48,000 lbs 18 1.4

50,000 " 18 1.5

52,000 " 18 2.4

In the last case we get 4 per cent,
greater strength over the second case
at a cost of 60 per cent. more. We
get 4 per cent, more strength in the
second case over the first at a cost
of 7 per cent. It is manifest that
unless the question of weight is of
more importance than usual, the last
case is not justified. Where, as in
steamships or battleships, weight is of

PURCHASING OF MATERIAL

347

enormous importance, it may be justi-
fiable.

This principle runs through all
class of specifications, and in fact
is the basis upon which all accurate
decisions of the proper kind and
quality of material to buy must rest.

Chordal, in one of his letters, says :
"Never put a crocus finish on a hand-
car crank."

We may briefly state the principle
governing the draughting of a speci-
fication as follows :

Require only those properties or
peculiarities which can be clearly
shown to be justified by the price
to be paid and the value of the
work to be done.

Omit all requirements which have
not a definite object and value. They
only hamper the manufacturer and
are usually not observed a short time
after the specification has been is-
sued, while the element of uncer-
tainty in them causes an increase in
the cost.

Maximum and minimum limits
should invariably be specified and
these should be as wide apart as pos-
sible. It should be always stated
whether these are merely desired
limits or limits of rejection.

Uncertainty and indefiniteness are
the most expensive things about the
average specifications. The manu-
facturer, being in doubt, must per-
force take the most expensive con-

struction which can legally be put on
the specification or he runs a risk of
loss, and to save himself must in-
crease the price accordingly.

The problem of the price is not
susceptible of analysis by any present
methods. Of course the best price
should be obtained. The lowest of a
number of different prices is seldom
if ever the best. If all parties quot-
ing are of good reputation it may
be, but where this is not the case the
lowest price is too often from one
who counts on getting in his indiffer-
ent goods by chicanery or fraud.
Even if he is honest, the improba-
bility of his goods being accepted,
promptly shipped or properly di-
rected is very great and the conse-
quent loss more than offsets the sav-
ing in price.

The fluctuation in prices are very
great at times, varying with the sea-
son and the variation of supply and
demand. When these fluctuations can
be foreseen enormous savings can be
made. The president of a railroad
placed an order one summer for rails
for next summer delivery. By the
next summer prices had advanced to
such an extent that he sold his old
rails for enough to pay for the new
ones and $200,000 over.

The petty bargainer and the man
who is ever ready to cut prices are
the ones to be avoided by the careful
purchaser.

THE BALANCING OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES

By R. J. Grimshaw

IF a perfectly balanced engine were
placed on springs, we should get
no motion at all of the springs,
but unfortunately, most engines are
inadequately or improperly balanced
and considerable shock takes place
which must be absorbed by the bear-
ers. In the case of reciprocating
marine engines, the shock due to im-
perfect balance must be absorbed by
the structure of the vessel, requiring
heavy engine bearers and also possibly
producing excessive vibration. This
may be greatly reduced or altogether
eliminated if proper attention be paid
in the first place to the matter of
balancing in the design of the engine.
Some makers balance their engines
by the tentative process of placing
weights on the moving parts and vary-
ing these in magnitude and distribu-
tion until some sort of a balance is ob-
tained. This trial-and-error method
usually leads to a heavier engine than
would be obtained by proceeding on
some scientific line. It is the purpose
of this article to show how the vari-

THE BALANCING OF ROTATING MASSES

Case I. When the Masses All Act in
One Plane.
We will assume that we have a num-
ber of masses all acting at a common
radius from the axis of the shaft, as
shown in Fig. i. (Whatever the
masses and their distances from the
axis of the shaft be, we can reduce
them to a common radius, since any
mass acting as a radius r is equal to
a mass

m. r.

acting at a radius r.

Suppose then that the masses re-
volve at an angular velocity w in the
plane L M at a common radius r0.
The effect of each mass is a centrifu-
gal force acting outwards from the
same point in the axis. Hence the
masses reduce to a single resultant
force, acting through this point. Re-
ferring the masses to rectangular axes
O X, O Y moving with the shaft, we
have that total force in the direction
OX:

= w2 (m1r0 cosO-L+niz r0 cos62-\-m3r0 cos03-\-etc.)
= 5ffl1r0 to2 cosdx

= <o2 M.~x

ous types of reciprocating engines
may be balanced.

In a reciprocating engine the mov-
ing parts may generally be divided
into :

i. Rotating;

and 2. Reciprocating.

The usual practice is to balance ro-
tating masses by rotating masses and
reciprocating by reciprocating masses.

348

in which M is the sum of all the masses
and x is the x-coordinate of the centre
of gravity of the mass M.

Similarly the total force on the di-
rection 0 Y = a)2 M.y. Hence the
resultant force = <o2 M R, in which R
is the distance of the centre of gravity
of the masses from the axis of the
shaft.

The effect of these rotating masses

BALANCING ENGINES

Shaft"

349

/Vlasi M

">5-

fndKcto of Slafr

i* r° Polygon o-f foKCS

FIG. 1. BALANCING OF ROTATING MASSES

is therefore the same as if the sum of
the masses were concentrated at the
centre of gravity of the different
masses.

If the centre of gravity is the axis
there is no resultant force and the
masses then balance.

When the centre of gravity does not
lie in the axis of the shaft we can use
the polygon of forces to determine the
balance weight we must use and its
position relative to the other masses.

Draw A b parallel and equal to m1
to2 r0 ; b c parallel and equal to m2 to2 r0 ;

PUnz/3

mo» 4-

Jtl

Planed

k— « — jH,

FIG. 2. SINGLE CRANK

and so on : the closing line B A of
the polygon gives the magnitude and
direction of the balance mass we must
add to the system. If Rx be the radius
at which the balance mass M1 is to act,
then : M1w2R1 = B A and the direc-
tion of the radius must be parallel to
BA.

Case 2. When the Rotating Masses
Are Not Co-planar.

We will refer our forces to a
plane of reference a perpendicular to-
the axis of the shaft, in which the
balance masses are to be placed.

Consider the effect of one crank
at a distance a from plane ex.

The centrifugal force due to a
mass m revolving at an angular speed
to and a radius r, is m <o2 r. In the
plane a we can add two equal and
opposite forces m oj2 r parallel to the
force at the crank without affecting
the system. The centrifugal force
m <o2 r at the crank, and, the opposite
equal force at the axis in the plane a,
form a couple rri(o2r.a. Hence the

35°

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

anei

Crank ~E> Crank A

Plane or

K— 2ot— >

---2D ■»{

Zn*\ Viewof Shaft

rn m

Mass ?

Disl-ance
l^lanea fcJJ

plane a

(D+c()

a mfr)-cO

Couple Polygon

Crank A

Force Pojpon

Crank B «-

'jwaJS^

til Ho in plant a
f nd View of Balanced Sys/km

FIG. . 3. DOUBLE CRANKS

pion<?/3

effect of the force m o>2 r at the crank
is equal to a couple m w2 r . a, and a
force m or r parallel to the force at
the crank.

Hence, whatever the number of
cranks, it is seen that we can reduce
all the centrifugal forces at the
cranks to parallel equal forces in the
plane ex, and couples.

We can compound these sepa-
rately, and get a resultant force and
a resultant couple, and balance these
resultants by an opposing equal force
and couple, and thus get a perfect
balance.

An example will show clearly how
this may be done. Suppose, as in a

locomotive, we have two cranks at
right angles, Fig. 3.

Our planes of reference a. and B
will be the planes of the driving
wheels.

Suppose the magnitude of the ro-
tating masses be m, their distance
apart be 2 d, and the spread of the
driving wheels be 2 D. For a
balance the couple polygon must
close, and so must the force poly-
gon. In other words, there must be :

1. No resultant force;

2. No resultant couple.

The state of affairs will be as
shown in Fig. 3. In drawing the
couple polygon it is more convenient

BALANCING ENGINES

35i

Cranks''

cyli'no(.e.rs

m.wrcoi

(0+aJ ^rcos^+a)

» rn a>V Cos(e+ar )

l*r-

a >

— a , *

a -.

x A

rcosQ

1 >

1
1

1 ,\

\ 1

End t/,e^ of Crankshaft ,
Show/no cranks and crank an<jies

-FOUR-CRANK ENGINE

to draw the line representing a
couple in the plane of the couple, and
not, as is usual, perpendicular to that
plane.

Take moments about the plane oc.

Draw A B = m (D — d) and paral-
lel to direction of crank A.

Draw B C equal and parallel to m
(D-d).

Then will C A represent the
balancing couple in magnitude and
direction.

CA = my/ 2 yD2+d2

Therefore the mass in plane
CA

m ^/D*+d*

2D D V2

To find the balance mass in plane .

We have now three forces of
which the magnitude and direction
are known, therefore the remaining
force is also known in magnitude and
direction, since the force polygon
must close.

THE BALANCING OF RECIPROCATING
MASSES

Along any fixed axis the motion of
the projection of each of the rotat-
ing masses is harmonic, so that if,
instead of being concentrated at and
revolving with the crank pin, we
have them merely reciprocating har-
monically along parallel lines in the
same plane, we still get the same
forces as before, in the line of the
stroke. So, confining ourselves to the
line of stroke, the conditions of
balance for reciprocating masses are
identical with those for rotating
masses. That is, there must be :

1. No resultant force;

2. No resultant couple.

In order, therefore, to balance re-
ciprocating masses perfectly, we
must use reciprocating masses. Any
attempt to balance both rotating and
reciprocating masses by purely ro-
tating: masses will lead to unbalanced

Draw E F = m and parallel to crank A
" F G = 111 and parallel to crank B

GH = m VD2+d2

GH = — .

V2 D

and parallel to C A

Then H E, the closing line of the forces and couples perpendicular to

force polygon, equals in magnitude the plane of stroke.

and direction the closing- balance Hence, neglecting the obliquity of

force in the plane the connecting rods, we can obtain a

Its magnitude is obviously

m ^D2-\-d2

352

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

perfect balance by balancing rotating
by rotating, and reciprocating by re-
ciprocating.

Neglecting obliquity, let us con-
sider a four-crank engine, Fig. 4.
The motion of the reciprocating mass
attached to any crank (by means,
say, of infinitely long connecting
rod) is the harmonic projection of
the motion of the end of that crank
arm along the line of stroke.

The centrifugal acceleration of the
end of the crank arm is w2 r, there-
fore its projection along the line of
stroke is to2, r1 cos0, for crank No. 1,
and w2 r2 cos(0-|-a.2) for crank No.
2, etc.

The force in the line of stroke
then :

Now if the resolutes of a force in
two directions at right angles are
each zero, then that force is zero.
Hence equations (1) and (2) give
the condition that there is no result-
ant force in the system.

Similarly, equations (3) and (4)
give the condition that there is no re-
sultant couple.

For example : Suppose we are
given two crank angles, the distance
between the cylinders and one mass.
The problem is to find the three re-
maining masses and the angles at
which the remaining cranks must be
set. See Fig. 5.

Suppose we are given angles
COD and COB; the distances a2,

mx a)2 rx cos$-\-m2or r2 cos(8-\-o.2) -\-m3

y3 cos(9+*z) +

m4(u2 ricos(8-\-^i)

= cosO \mx to2 r1-\-m2 w2 r2 cos<x2-\-m3 w2 r3 cosai^-mi w2 r4 ccyocj

— sinO [m2 m2 r2 sin&2-\-ms w2 rs sina-3-\-mi w2 r4 jmoc]
= cosO [m1 to2 r^+2 (m2 u>2 r2 cos&2)~\

— sind [2 (m2or r2 ««,)]

Also taking moments about any and a3, and a4 ; and the mass m4.

point P in the axis of the shaft we The couple triangle is known,

have : thus :

Couple about P in plane of engine : Draw a b = mA a4 and parallel to

= 2 ml ft)2 rx cos6Xcti

= cosd \mx ax o)2 rx-)-2 ( m2 a2 o>2 r2 cos&2) ]

= sind [ 2 (m2 a2 <o2 r2 sina2)]

If the four reciprocating forces crank OD; be parallel to crank OC;

are mutually balanced we must a c parallel to crank O B.

satisfy the conditions that: The two lines be and ac meet at

1. The total couple is zero; c, and hence b c = couple m3 a3, and

2. The total force is zero, c a = couple m2 a2.

for all values of the angle 0. Hence, since a2 and a3 are known,

These conditions are satisfied if : so are m2 and m3.

ma w2 fj+2 (m2 w2 r.2 cos&2)= o (1)

2 (m2 (o2 r2 sine) — o (2)

m1 Oj w2 rx4-2 (m2a2o>2r2 coso.2)=o (3)

2 (ni2 a2 to2 r2 sino-2) =0 (4)

The left-hand side of equation (1) We can now proceed to draw the

represents the total force parallel to force polygon.

crank arm No. I. Similarly that of Thus, draw pq parallel and equal

equation (2) represents the total to m4J (m4 represents the forces m4

force perpendicular to crank-arm r w2, as we are assuming that r and

No. 1. ,o2 are common to all the forces), qr

BALANCING ENGINES

Cranks A B Q ~J> \<v \ ~Eni tfew "/

1 . _h ; i ; \° ■ j> O™ ik J/» »(1

' _ J I \^^ I With Wotvn Crank

Masses ? ? ? m^

a %<v ° T ^N P\ >A

Couple. Trian^t TorceTJyoon fnj^—^-^u,

//;<_ Lalawcecl unguis

FIG. 5. FOUR-CYLINDER PROBLEM

parallel and equal to m3 ; p s parallel can be shown that almost the correct

and equal to m2 ; then the closing line effect due to the motion of the rod

s r represents in magnitude and di- C G

rection the balance mass m1. Hence is given if we assume ■ of the

draw O A parallel to s r ; the angle C P

D O A represents the angle at which mass of the rod to reciprocate at P ;

me must set our crank O A in order P G

to have a balance for reciprocating and of the mass of the rod to

forces ; the line s r representing the C P

magnitude of the remaining mass. rotate at the crank pin C.

c In balancing locomotive engines

%^s^ — -,-««^- tne usual practice is to attempt a part

<2°2'^ ^"**-"-»«« ^^^ balance by balancing the reciprocat-

^- ,in .^^ v ing Parts with rotating masses ap-
plied to the driving wheels. This

FIG. 6. ROTATING AND RECIPROCATING PARTS , • . , r

procedure introduces forces perpen-
Certain parts, however, are neither dicular to the plane of the cylinders,
purely reciprocating nor purely ro- and the maximum unbalanced force
taiing. The connecting rod is an ex- so introduced is termed the "ham-
ample of such. Thus the point C, in mer blow." It is the force which is
the connecting rod C P, rotates, alternately put in and taken off the
while P reciprocates. If G be the rims, and gives the driving wheels
centre of gravity of the rod, then it a tendency to skid.

DATA FOR BALANCING LOCOMOTIVES

Stroke 24 ins.

Distance between cylinders 283^ "

Distance between wheels 58 "

Radius of balance-weight circle 35

Weight of piston 100 lbs.

Weight of piston rod 85

Weight of crosshead 55 "

Weight of crank webs (uniform) 560

Weight of crank pin 52 "

Weight of connecting rod 450. "

4-5

354

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

The following shows how we
should proceed to balance a locomo-
tive engine with two cranks at right
angles.

The dimensions are given on the
preceding page.

The centre of gravity of the con-
necting rod was distant two-fifths of
its length from the crank pin. The
shaft made 250 revolutions per
minute.

Total weight of reciprocating parts

Hence, scaling off

176

c a —

-Xi44

lb. ins., we have for the magnitude
of balance mass in driving wheel <*;
/ 176 \

I XI44 1^-56= 113 lb.

For reasons of symmetry it is seen
that the magnitude of the balance
mass in plane /? must also be 113
pounds, placed symmetrically with re-

= weight of piston-)-piston- rod -(-cross head-)-2/5 connecting rod
= 100+85+55+ (2/5X450)= 420 pounds

12
This must be reduced to an equivalent mass of X420 pounds,

because we have to place our balance
weight, not in the crank circle of a
radius of 12 inches, but in the
balance weight circle, of 35 inches
radius, which gives 144 pounds.

Total weight of rotating parts

spect to balance mass in plane a.
The balance masses in planes a and j8
are, hence,
206.4
■ x 1 13 = 169 lb. each,

144
and with directions

identical with

= weight of crank pin+^ crank

= 52+(KX56o) + (3/5X45o)
= 602 lb. at 12 in. radius
= 206.4 lb. at 35 in. radius

webs+3/5 connecting rod

To balance reciprocating parts, the
state of affairs is shown in Fig. 8.

The couple polygon must close.
Hence, drawing a b parallel to crank
1, and equal to 144X42J4 pound-
inches, to some convenient scale; and
b c parallel to crank 2 and equal to

144 X pound-inches; we have

2
c a represents in magnitude and di-
rection the moment of the balance
mass in driving wheel Q- about plane
of driving wheel /?.

those for reciprocating parts.

The same result would, of course,

follow the closing of the polygon.

To balance rotating parts.

The figures we have already drawn
for reciprocating forces answer
equally well for rotating forces, the
scale only being different. We
should replace our masses of 144
pounds with masses of 206.4 pounds,
using otherwise the diagrams already
given.

TtcibrocabnQ //7fl«* Tn

FIG. 7. OBLIQUITY OF CONNECTING ROD

BALANCING ENGINES

355

Cra n /f /

Crank 2 Crat\h.\

«-- aef-— >
-- dT6" — -

\crnnAl

-j z

Messrs ?

■front 0

Moment

Obou.h o

Wan* /3

U+l+Wi- Ilrlj-IL

o-f CranHS

2*7 o

Si'

Crank I

H3*L\

in plant /$

Couple ivlyqon

Crank Z

. in it

in plan€ Gt
"End Vi c w o-f Cr an k* Arte/
Balance Weights inJ>rti/inq WheelJ
-for T^ectproca'fino- Tar A

The same -figure applies for Loth 7?ai~a]tinj and ' ~Rect proccttn^
masses -, -/he masses /I3 lb. are now replace ol 6y masse J of 88i.IL

FIG. 8. BALANCING LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE

To balance both rotating and recip-
rocating parts.

We have now two sets of balance
masses in driving wheels, of 113 and
169 pounds in each wheel. To bal-
ance both rotating and reciprocating
parts, these balance masses must be
compounded. In this particular case
this is done simply by adding them.

HAMMER BLOW

We have attempted to balance the
reciprocating parts by rotating masses
of 113 pounds each, placed in the
driving wheels. The centrifugal

113

force due to these is

which

. «r r; in

g = 32.2 (the acceleration due to gravity)

250X2^
= 250 revolutions per minute = per second

feet.

356

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Hence the magnitude of the ham-
mer blow at the rims is given by :

ii3 / 250 \2 35

1 X27r |X pounds

32.2 V 60 / 12

= 7,000 pounds.

Hitherto we have not considered the
effect of the obliquity of the connect-
ing rod. The motion of the recipro-
cating masses ceases to be harmonic.
If n denote the ratio of length of
connecting rod to length of crank
arm, then the acceleration of the re-
ciprocating masses at any point of
the stroke given by the angle 6 of
crank to line of stroke may be taken
as :

r.m-

(

cos 26

cosdX-

r being the radius of
the crank arm and w the angular ve-
locity of the crank shaft.

The effect of obliquity is to add
a second harmonic of double the
frequency to the primary harmonic
given by r w2 cos0.

Considering a four-crank engine
with obliquity, but neglecting the ef-
fect of the valve gears, the force in
the line of stroke due to a reciprocat-
ing mass m is :

cos 26'
in >■>' i ] cos6-\-

(cos 26 V
cose+ —)

Crank
.4-

* a.. — T

*— a

*-"*«

Snd ViZYf of
Ct an H Shaf/-

FIG. 9. BALANCING FOUR CRANKS, WITH OBLIQUITY OF CONNECTING RODS

Hence we have, due to the four
cranks, the force in the line of
stroke

= mlrm2 cos8-\-m2r <o2 cos (6-\-&2) -\-msr *r cos (#4-a3) m^ror

1 cos (<H-a4)

-f- cos — r oj" [m1 cos 2$-j-m2 cos 2 (0+a2)-H»3 cos 2 (0+a3)+w4

n cos 2 (<H-a4)]

= cosO \mx-\-%m2 cos<x2]
— sinO [ ~%wi2 sin<x2]

cos 2 6
H [Wj+SWj cos 2 oc2]

11
sin 2 6

i 22 sin 2 a2]

BALANCING ENGINES

357

Taking moments about No. I (in equations are quite independent of
axis of shaft), total couple in plane the number of cranks. The whole
of cylinders : eight equations must be satisfied for

= miw2r cos ((H-aJX^+Wjor r cos (0-f-as) Xi3+w, «>2 r cos

(0+a2)Xa2
cos 2 (0+a4) co.s-2 (/9+cc2)

-f- mi to2 r

Xo4+

. m2 a)" r

-,Xa3

= cosQ \%m2 a2 cos<x2]
— sinO [%m2 a2 sin&2]

cos 20
-) [2»2 a2 cos 2 a2]

n
sin 26

[%m2 a2 sin 2 oc2]

Now for a balance the total force a perfect balance (neglecting valve

must be zero and the total couple gears) of reciprocating parts, what-

must be zero. Hence, to satisfy these ever the number of cranks,
conditions for any value of 0 we With four cranks we cannot

must have : satisfy the whole eight equations, so

m1-\-%m2 cos oc2 =0 (1)

Sm2 sin a2 = ° (2)

m1-\-'%m2 cos 2a =0 (3)

m2 sin 2 a2 =0 (4)

%m2 a2 cos<*2 = o (5)

2m2 a2 sin<x2 = o (6)

%m2 a2 cos 2 oc2 = o (7)

%m2 a2 sin 2 oc2 = o (8)

Equations 1 and 2 refer to primary we cannot obtain a perfectly balanced
forces ; equations 3 and 4 refer to four-crank engine. We can, how-
secondary forces; equations 5 and 6 ever, so arrange matters that we can
refer to primary couples; equations satisfy the first six equations, and so
7 and 8 refer to secondary couples. balance for everything but the secon-

It is also obvious that the eight dary couples.

°i c

VF , , ! I hyCt

'm i/vl 7 Mm L**1^ 1»n/

I* L -n ^-K

£W |//'«?w of J^af/-

FIG. 10. YARROW-SCHLICK-TWEEDY SYSTEM

35»

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

a 3

i-p. H.r.

H lb ...¥

— >l

i^v'-e

• /LP

J^aSSf^ (<}ooo+*t) J2ooo /?ooo (^ooofwl

FIG. 11. BALANCING FOUR-COUPLED ENGINE

This is done in the Yarrow-
Schlick-Tweedy system in the follow-
ing manner :

We can satisfy the first six equa-
tions by making (i) the outer masses
in the low-pressure planes equal; (2)
the inner masses in the intermediate-
pressure and high-pressure planes

ind

= x

Then substituting in the first six

equal ; and arranging the position of equations, we must have :
the cylinders so that the distance be- x

tween low-pressure and intermediate- v2-\ (y2 — 1) — y2= o

pressure cylinders equals the distance 2

between the high-pressure and low- and cos<* = x — 1
pressure cylinders. /3 1 oc

If we denote the low-pressure re- cos = cos

ciprocating masses by m, and the in- 2 x 2

ner masses by M, and put the ratios : and the angle between low-pressure

ttflSi = 92S*o/6. L.lP^-Jt!:^<L.E to<*$s = <)Qsoll>.

mass= i^oooil,

l^vrnass *: i2ooo

FIG. 12. END VIEW OF BALANCED CRANK SHAFT, SHOWING CRANK ANGLES

BALANCING ENGINES

359

and high-pressure cranks equals the
angle between the low-pressure
cranks.

oc is the angle between the low-
pressure cranks.

ft is the angle between the high-
pressure and intermediate-pressure
cranks.

An example of the application of
the above equations to the balancing
of a four-crank engine is as follows :

The data given are :

placed in the low-pressure planes,
then :

12,000 = x (9,000-j-w)
whence w = 250 lb.

That is : the reciprocating weights
in the low-pressure planes must be
increased by 250 pounds.

To find the crank angles.

Cos of crank angle 1-0-4, (see dia-
gram) x — 1=0.3; hence the angle
between the low-pressure cranks =
723^ degrees.

Distance between low-pressure cranks 35 ft.

Distance between high-pressure and intermediate-pressure 16 ft.

Total reciprocating masses :

For the high-pressure cylinder 12,000 lb.

For the intermediate-pressure cylinder 12,000 lb.

For each low-pressure cylinder 9,000 lb.

The relative positions of the cranks
along the crank shaft were unalter-
able, and any additional weights
necessary were to be placed in the
low-pressure planes.

35
Here y = and is unalterable.

16
Hence solve for x in Schlick's

35
equation, making y =

Also : cos crank angle

2-0-3

cos crank angle

1-0-4

= 0.62

hence one-half the crank angle 2-0-3
= 510 42', and whole angle between
the high-pressure and low-pressure
cranks is equal to 1030 24'.

Hence the system is balanced for
reciprocating forces if we arrange

(~h-H^)

= 0

whence x = 1.3 nearly.

If w be the additional weight to be

crank angles and masses as shown in
the figure.

Crank shaf-h |

— v— f — -

rr\z m3

mt m^

End V/'^w of
Cra-nk Shafi~

FIG. 13. THREE-CRANK BALANCING

3<5°

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

The rotating masses must be dealt
with separately, as indicated previ-
ously, the crank angles being fixed
by the balance of the reciprocating
masses.

We can satisfy the whole of the
eight equations by:

(i) Three equal masses in one
plane, the cranks being at 120;

(2) By one crank in each of two
outer planes and two cranks in a cen-
tral plane.

In this case the cranks in the outer
planes must be parallel to those in
the central plane, and make angles
of 120 with them and with each
other, as shown in Fig. 13.

The sum of the outer masses must
be equal to each of the central
masses, and the moment of the outer
masses about the central plane must
be equal.

Here m,

and m1 ax = mi a4

m1-\-mi

We can obtain a 5-crank balanced
engine by superimposing two such
systems, so that the central masses
are co-planar. The latter then re-
duce to a single resultant mass, and
we have a balanced 5-crank engine
in which the primary and secondary
forces and couples are all balanced
with the exception of the valve gears.
In the same manner a 6-crank
balanced engine could be obtained by
combining with the 5-crank system
another balanced system so that the
central resultant crank mass is zero.

In all the preceding investigations
the effect of the valve gears has been
neglected. They are usually of very
small account, but can be balanced if
we represent each crank and its valve
gears by an equivalent resultant
crank. This is easily done graphic-
ally by an obvious process. We then
proceed as already indicated for both
reciprocating and rotating masses.

THE HORSE-POWER

By H. M. Phillips

((i i ORSE-POWER" is now a
I — I word that is in almost daily
A 1 use, not only among engin-
eers, but with the world at large ; the
advent of the automobile, motor boat
and aeroplane has done much toward
making the expression familiar, yet
with the exception of engineers of
technical training, there are compara-
tively few that know exactly what a
horse-power is and how it may be
measured.

When it is stated that an engine
will develop five horse-power a nat-
ural comparison conveys a fairly
definite idea to the mind, although the
critic may inquire what kind of a
horse and how hard is he supposed
to be working? When we hear of a
20,000 horse-power engine we find it
difficult to imagine that number of
quadrupeds at work. Why is it that
the lightest automobile carries a 15
horsepower engine? Why is the 30-
knot torpedo boat having a displace-
ment of only 250 tons and cutting
the water like a knife, equipped with
5,000 horse-power engines, while the
clumsily built 9-knot freighter, with
twenty times the displacement, re-
quires but 1,000?

To the engineer the horse-power is
a perfectly definite unit of measure-
ment ; as definite as the foot, the
pound, or the minute, all of which are
combined in the horse-power unit.
The horse-power is the unit for meas-
uring the rate at which energy is
being expended ; the ability to do a
certain amount of work in a given
time; one horsepower is the amount
necessary to raise a weight of 33,000
pounds one foot in one minute. If
one pound is raised 33,000 feet, or
if any body is moved this distance

while offering a resistance of one
pound to the moving force, in one
minute it will amount to the same
thing. Any combination may be
taken where the product of the force
in pounds by the distance in feet is
33,000 and the time consumed by
the operation one minute, as, for ex-
ample, the belt driving a machine.
If two minutes are allowed for the
task the amount of work accom-
plished is obviously the same, but
the horse-power is reduced to one-
half; it is evident that a horse can
do more work in two minutes than
he can in one, and that if a task is
to be accomplished in half the time
energy must be expended with twice
the rapidity.

Returning to the original quad-
ruped, it will be seen that when
walking at three miles per hour he
will have to exert a pull of 125
pounds on the traces in order to
deliver one horse-power, according
to the engineering definition ; if he
trots at the rate of nine miles per
hour one-third of this pull will be
sufficient. The writer, weighing 175
pounds, has ascended a flight of
stairs 10 ft. 2 in. in height in three
seconds, a feat easily accomplished
by any man of fair activity. During
the three seconds in question the
human engine developed nearly one
and one-tenth horse-power. Substi-
tute a tread mill for the stairs and
this amount of power, less the fric-
tion of the mill, could be transmitted
to a shaft and used in any manner
desired.

Some mechanical operations re-
quire a surprisingly large amount of
power, while others are performed
with much less than the novice might

361

362

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

expect; the secret is usually found
in the speed at which the machine
runs. The automobile, rated at
from 15 to 60 horse-power, will serve
as an example. It is heavier than an
ordinary carriage, and consequently
is harder to pull, even on level
ground ; on an up-grade, where the
weight of the machine is being
raised the height of the hill, the
difference is much more marked, for
no refinement of bearings can re-
duce the pull due to gravity. The
vehicle drawn by a horse seldom ex-
ceeds a speed of 10 miles per hour ;
if that speed were increased to 20
miles, a moderate automobile speed,
the power required to draw it would
be doubled, even though the actual
pull remained the same ; as a matter
of fact the pull would have to be
greatly increased, perhaps doubled,
in which case four times the original
power would be required. The re-
sistance of the air is trifling at 10
miles per hour, at 20 it becomes
serious, and when the speed is in-
creased to 40 miles or more a great
deal of power is required to over-
come it ; an idea of the wind pressure
on an automobile may be obtained
from that felt on the body when ex-
posed to a gale of wind whose
velocity rarely exceeds 40 miles per
hour. The increase of resistance with
speed is much more marked in
water than in air, as illustrated above
by the torpedo boat and freighter.

In many of the large machine
shops a huge engine lathe may be
seen ; it is 10 ft. high and covers
a floor space of 10 x 30 ft. ; a group
of heavy steel gears is required to
transmit the power for the work
being done. A steel casting 5 ft. in
diameter and weighing 25 tons is
being rotated between the lathe
centers while its surface is being
turned. A shaving comes in a spiral
from the point of the cutting tool,
a steel shaving ^4 of an inch wide
and 1/16 of an inch thick, the heat
developed in tearing the shaving
from the body of the casting is so
great it is colored a deep blue, a

sign that is very nearly red hot when
torn off. The ponderous machinery
trembles with the strain. Fifteen or
20 horse-power may be required to
drive this lathe, the speed at which
it is turning being comparatively low.
In another part of the shop we may
find a man polishing small pieces of
brass on a "buff wheel" ; the wheel
itself is 18 inches in diameter and is
composed of round pieces of soft
cloth, having no support except at
their center, where they are secured
to a light shaft. When stationary
the wheel will not keep its shape,
but when the shaft is driven by a
light belt at a speed of 2,500 revo-
lutions per minute, the wheel be-
comes quite rigid. The entire ma-
chine may be about four feet in
height and occupy a floor space three
feet square. The operator presses a
piece of "rouge" against the cir-
cumference of the revolving wheel
to give it the desired polishing prop-
erty, then holding the brass with
any suitable instrument, he presses
it forcibly against the wheel. The
friction tends to carry the work
around with the revolving wheel,
but is prevented from doing so
either by the strength of the oper-
ator or by allowing the work to rest
on a stationary shelf which just
clears the wheel. This force, we will
say, exerts a pull of 50 pounds at
the circumference of the wheel,
which travels at the rate of 11,780
ft. per minute; multiplying these
two together and dividing by 33,000,
we find that the wheel is consuming
18 horse-power in addition to the
friction of the shaft, approximately
the same amount of power reqiiired
for the giant lathe. This amount of
power can be applied continuously
for a few seconds only; the wheel is
sometimes ignited by the heat gener-
ated by the friction.

The power required to operate an
elevator is a simple problem ; so
many pounds to be lifted at a given
number of feet per minute will rep-
resent about 60 per cent, of the
power required, the remainder being

THE HORSE-POWER

3t>3

lost in friction. When counter-
weights are used only the unbalanced
load is considered. Pumping water
to a given elevation is practically the
same thing; a cubic foot weighs
about 625^ pounds, knowing the
number of cubic feet per minute re-
quired and the distance it is to be
lifted, the horse-power can be figured
that is expended in lifting the water;
to this must be added a certain
amount for friction in the pipes and
in the pump. If the pump is to
deliver water against a definite pres-
sure the equivalent lift may be
found, a pressure of one pound per
square inch being equal to a "head"
or lift of 2 3/10 feet; or we may
figure how fast a column of water
one square inch in section must travel
to deliver the required amount,
which, multiplied by the pressure in
pounds per square inch and divided
by 33,000, will give the required
horse-power, exclusive of the friction
of the pump.

The amount of power obtainable
from a stream can be calculated in
a similar manner ; measurements of
the channel and the velocity of the
stream will give the number of cubic
feet, readily reduced to pounds, of
water flowing per minute ; with a
given amount of fall the power in
the water may be calculated, it is
the same that would be required to
raise it the same height by a pump,
no allowance being made for fric-
tion. From 60 to 90 per cent, of
this power may be delivered for
commercial purposes by a water-
wheel or turbine.

The buffing wheel previously de-
scribed suggests an easy method of
measuring the power that can be
delivered to a revolving shaft from
any source. A brake is applied to
the revolving shaft until the desired
load is obtained, the power is then
calculated from the pull exerted on
the brake and the speed of the shaft.
The brake may be made in a variety
of forms, the general idea being al-
ways the same. The details will
vary with the amount of power to

be measured, the speed of the shaft
and the available material. A cord
or rope may be given one or more
turns about the circumference of a
pulley or fly-wheel and tension ap-
plied by means of a spring balance
attached to each end. If the pulley
exerts no pull upon the rope, both
balances will read the same, but the
friction of the revolving pulley does
exert a pull which is measured by
the difference between the readings,
the velocity of the circumference of
the pulley in feet per minute may
be obtained by counting the revolu-
tions and the horse-power found by
dividing the product of pull and
velocity by 33,000. Weights of any
kind may be substituted for one of
the balances. One reading only is
then necessary in order to make a
measurement, for the fixed weight
may be determined before or after
the test. A band may be carried
around the wheel and tightened by
means of a screw. In order to pre-
vent the band from turning it is
attached to an arm of any convenient
length, the end of which rests upon
a platform scale, the point from
which the arm exerts its downward
pressure on the scales should be on
the same level as the center of the
shaft in order to prevent a lateral
pressure, which would not be re-
corded by the scales. In this case
the arm acts as a lever and the
weight recorded is less than the
actual pull at the circumference of
the pulley. This leverage could be
measured, but it is unnecessary to
do so, for if we consider the pulley
to have a radius equal to the dis-
tance from the center of the shaft
to the point where the arm exerts its
downward pressure the same result
will be obtained. The power may
then be calculated as in the preced-
ing case. If the scales support a
part of the weight of the arm inde-
pendently of any pressure exerted by
the friction of the brake, this weight
must be deducted from the reading
of the scales. The results obtained
with these brakes are as accurate as

364

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

the measurements of distance, speed
and weight from which they are
calculated. The weight is sometimes
difficult to obtain with accuracy, as
it is likely to vary so rapildy that an
exact reading is difficult to obtain.
Lubrication of the friction surfaces
tends to steady the load, and with
properly constructed apparatus the
total error should not exceed one
per cent, of the power being meas-
ured.

The friction of the brake causes
it to heat rapidly, and although the
temperature reached will depend
upon the size and form of the break
as well as upon the power absorbed,
it is safe to say that if more than five
horse-power is to be measured it
will be necessary to provide some
means of cooling if the brake is to be
used for more than a few minutes.
Brake pulleys are frequently made
with a flange at each edge, extending
toward the center ; water is then led
to the inside of the rim by a pipe;
while the pulley is revolving it will
be held to the rim by centrifugal
force and retained within the pulley
by the flanges. A drain pipe may
be so arranged that it will scoop
some of the water from the revolv-
ing pulley as the depth inside the
rim becomes too great; in this way a
constant circulation of cold water
may be obtained. Very powerful
brakes for high-speed shafts, are
made in which the friction is pro-
duced by a violent churning of water
instead of by pressure between solid
surfaces; a brake the size of a bar-
rel may be made to absorb several
thousand horse-power, while in op-
eration it is surrounded by a cloud of
steam.

Brake methods are very useful
in determining the power that an
engine or machine of any kind can
deliver, but they fail to answer the
important question of how much
power will be required for a given
purpose, to drive a single machine of
any kind, to light a building by elec-
tricity or to run a factory. Neither
will they show how much power is

being used for any of these purposes
at a given time. In a few cases
(elevators, pumps, etc.) the power
required for an individual machine
may be estimated with considerable
accuracy from the work that is to
be performed. In the majority of
cases a fairly close estimate can be
made by an experienced engineer,
who combines his own good judg-
ment with his knowledge of results
obtained from tests on similar ma-
chines. The power to be supplied
for a factory is determined in much
the same way ; a part can be quite
closely calculated, but the total is a
matter of judgment and experience.
It is, however, possible to measure
the power consumed by a machine in
actual operation with considerable
accuracy. When electrical power is
available the machine to be tested
may be driven by a motor by the use
of electrical instruments, the power
being delivered to the motor at any
moment may be accurately measured,
the power lost in the motor, rarely
exceeding 15 per cent of the input,
may also be measured; the machine
consumes the remainder. The accu-
racy of the measurements is im-
proved rather than otherwise if the
motor is considerably larger than is
actually required to drive the ma-
chine, so one motor may be used for
testing a large variety of machines.
When a number of machines are
connected to a single line shaft the
shaft may be motor-driven and the
power required for the group meas-
ured in the same manner. When the
machinery is arranged in this manner
the power consumed by an individual
machine may be obtained by noting
the difference in the total when the
machine is disconnected. The power
consumed by the majority of ma-
chines is subject to wide variations,
caused either by the nature of the
machine itself or of the work it is
doing. These fluctuations may oc-
cur with great frequency and rapid-
ity, for which reason it may be
desirable to measure the average
horse-power or total work done dur-

THE HORSE-POWER

3^5

ing an hour, day, week or month.
Electrical instruments will accomplish
this also — in fact, this is what is
done by the ordinary meter, from
whose readings the electric light and
power companies determine the
amount of their bill. We can even
go a step further and use a meter
that will record on paper the amount
of power being used throughout the
day.

The modern factor often is elec-
trically driven, and instruments such
as described above form a part of
the engine room equipment and show
the total amount of power being con-
sumed at any and all times.

The same instruments that are
used to measure the power taken by
a motor will, of course, serve to
measure the power used by electric
lights. We know, from measure-
ments already made, that 13 ordi-
nary incandescent lights require while
in use a little less than one horse-
power ; one ordinary arc lamp re-
quires about the same amount of
power. The power required for the
various sizes and forms of electric
lights being used at present is also
a matter of record, so that the power
required for lighting is determined
as soon as we can decide upon the
kind of lamp to be used and the
number that will be in use at one
time. The engine will have to de-
liver from 10 to 20 per cent, more
power than is used by the lights
in order to overcome the losses in
the dynamo and wires.

Purely mechanical measurements
of transmitted power are generally
more difficult to make and less ac-
curate than the electrical methods ;
they depend upon measurements of
pull or weight and velocity, which are
usually difficult to obtain under work-
ing conditions. When a belt is trans-
mitting power there must be a differ-
ence in tension between the part ap-
proaching the working pulley and the
part leaving it ; this difference is the
effective pull which causes the pulley
to rotate ; if it can be measured in
pounds, the pull multiplied by the

speed of the belt in feet per minute
and divided by 33,000 will give the
horsepower. The effective speed of
the belt is readily obtained from the
diameter and number of revolutions
of the pulley ; any slipping of the belt
represents lost power, which should
not be measured as going to the ma-
chine. A pair of "idle pulleys" serv-
ing merely to guide the belt may be
mounted on a pivoted framework, the
tight side of the belt passing around
one and the loose side around the
other : the difference in tension tends
to rotate the frame, which may be re-
tained in its proper position by a
scale ; from the reading of the scale
we ma)' calculate the difference in
tension between the tight and loose
sides of the belt. The apparatus will
be cumbersome and an accurate read-
ing difficult to obtain on account of
fluctuations of power.

Instead of being rigidly connected
to the shaft a pulley may drive the
latter by means of a spring connec-
tion; the compression or extension of
the spring will measure the force ex-
erted, which may be reduced by ex-
periment or calculation to the equiva-
lent pull of a belt on a pulley of given
size ; the horse-power may then be
calculated as before. The difficulty
is to record the deflection of the
spring, which, of course, turns with
the shaft ; this may be done by a
system of levers and a loose collar
sliding on the shaft. An arrangement
may also be made by which the
spring causes a pencil to move across
a piece of paper ; the paper may be
caused to move at a uniform velocity
by means of clockwork and a con-
tinuous record for the day obtained.
The tendency of the spring to vibrate
and the friction of the levers and re-
cording mechanism is likely to make
the results obtained somewhat in-
accurate.

The power being developed by a
steam engine may be measured by
the "indicator" ; an exceedingly in-
teresting, instrument, which is attached
to die cylinder of the engine and
records the steam pressure within the

366

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

cylinder and consequently upon the
piston during all parts of the stroke
of the latter. A slip of paper about
six inches long is caused to move
backward and forward beneath a
pencil point with a speed that is
always proportional to that of the
piston ; this is accomplished by at-
taching the paper to the surface of a
small cylinder or "drum," which is
caused to rotate by a string properly
connected to some moving part of
the engine. The steam pressure in
the cylinder causes the pencil to move
across the paper in a direction at
right angles to the motion of the lat-
ter, the distance of the pencil point
from the position it assumes when
there is no steam turned on being
proportional to the steam pressure.
In this manner a chart or "diagram"
is obtained which shows the pressure
per square inch upon the piston during
each part of its strokes. The pressure
within the cylinder is controlled by
the governor of the engine, conse-
quently every variation in the load
will produce a change in the diagram.
The "Mean Effective Pressure"
(MEP) or the average of the differ-
ence of pressure on the piston be-
tween its forward and return stroke
during all parts of its travel may be
obtamed from the diagram; the area
of the piston in square inches may be
obtained by measuring the diameter
of the cylinder. Multiplying this by
the M.E.P. we have the average total
pressure delivered to one side of the
piston during a revolution of the en-
gine. By connecting the indicator to
the opposite end of the cylinder,
which is generally effected by merely
turning a "three-way cock," the pres-
sure on the opposite side of the piston
may be ascertained. The length of
the stroke, which is readily measured,
and the number of revolutions of the
engine determine the feet traveled by
the piston per minute; with this data
the horse-power is readily obtained
from the original definition and
formula. The result obtained in the
foregoing manner is termed the in-
dicated horse-power (I. H. P.), and

represents the amount actually deliv-
ered to the engine by the steam; 10
or 15 per cent, of this will probably
be lost in overcoming the friction in
the engine itself. This loss can be de-
termined with a fair degree of accu-
racy by finding the I.H.P. when
the engine has no external load. Sub-
tracting this amount, which does not
vary greatly with the load on the
engine, from any card taken while
running under load, gives the actual
horse-power delivered at the time
the card was taken ; this is generally
termed the brake horse-power
(B.H.P.), and should be the amount
measured by the brake previously
described if the engine had been
loaded in that manner instead of with
shafting and machinery. The power
required for a group of machines or
for a single machine may be deter-
mined with more or less accuracy by
noting the difference in the I.H.P.
produced by throwing the load in
question on and off. In order to
obtain satisfactory results it is essen-
tial that the difference in I.H.P.
should be a fair proportion of the
total and that the load carried, in
addition to the machinery being
tested, should be fairly steady. If
the test is repeated several times with
practically uniform results one may
feel quite confident of the accuracy ;
where readings of the I.H.P. re-
main uniform when the machine un-
der test is thrown off, but variable
when the machine is in operation we
may assume, unless we have evidence
to the contrary, that the power re-
quired to drive the machine varies
and that the different results obtained
are correct values for the moment at
which the corresponding indicator
diagrams were taken. When the
power varies both when the machine
is off and when it is in use no very
trustworthy results can be obtained,
although the average of a considerable
number of diagrams should give an
approximate measurement of the
average power required.

The indicator not only shows the
horse-power of the engine ; it also tells

THE HORSE-POWER

367

the engineer if the engine is running
properly and using steam in an
efficient manner. Most large plants
have their engines indicated at regu-
lar intervals to insure economy of

power, steam and coal. In less pro-
gressive engine rooms the waste that
is disclosed by the indicator, if it is
finally applied, is frequently very
startling:.

MINING ACCIDENTS

PRESENT CONDITIONS

GREAT BRITAIN.

By T. Good

FROM 1842, when the first import-
ant mines regulation act was
passed in Great Britain, down
to the end of the nineteenth century,
there was a remarkably steady decline
in the mining accident death rate.
Partly through the invention and
adoption of improved appliances, partly
through State control, and partly
through the improvement in the gen-
eral conditions and knowledge of
the working miners, the accident
death rate was reduced by more than
60 per cent, in sixty years. In the
last half of the last century the an-
nual number of mine workers killed
was reduced from one in about every
250 employed to one in about every
770. So far so good. In the last
few years, however, the movement
has been in the opposite direction.
Accidents are now on the increase.
The progress has stopped and retro-
gression has set in. This is a matter
of profound consequence. A series
of big disasters have stirred the na-
tional conscience. A royal commis-
sion has been taking evidence upon
the matter ; mine owners, engineers
and men of science have been con-
ducting elaborate experiments with
a view to lessening the dangers ; the
miners' unions have been pressing
for more stringent State control, and
the government has promised a
"comprehensive bill to cover the
whole ground" as soon as present in-
quiries and experiments are con-
cluded. In these circumstances we
may be permitted to offer a brief
review of some of the problems
involved in the general question of
safe working. We give herewith a
set of figures showing the great de-
cline in the accident death rate down

to the last ten years or so, and the
subsequent increase : —

Annua! Averages.

Deaths
Number From
Employed. Accidents.
1846-1855 229,468 985

280,844
407,472
500,140
624,977
777,999
956,193

1856-1865
1866-1875
1876-1885
1886-1895
1896-1905
1906-1909

992
1,129
1,107
1,041
1,009
1.285

Equal to
1 in every 249 employed
1 in every 286 employed
1 in every 366 employed
1 in every 461 employed
1 in every 601 employed
1 in every 769 employed
1 in every 745 employed

Taking the last ten years sepa-
rately, we have these figures :

1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909

Employed.
780,052
806,735
824,791
842,006
847,553
858,373
882,345
940,618
987,813

1,013,998

Deaths.
1,012
1,101
1,024
1,072
1,055
1,159
1,142
1,245
1,308
1,447

Equal to
1 in every 770
1 in every 732
1 in every 805
1 in every 785
1 in every 803
1 in every 740
1 in every 772
1 in every 755
1 in every 755
1 in every 700

employed
employed
employed
employed
employed
employed
employed
employed
employed
employed

Dividing the years into two five-
year periods, we get this result : —

1900-1904
1905-1909

Averages
Employed. Deaths. Equal to

818,239 1.052 1 in every 779 emploved

936,629 1,220 1 in every 774 employed

How comes it that, despite the
continual spread of scientific and
technical knowledge, the increasing
sobriety of the workers and more
strict State supervision, accidents are
now on the increase? We believe
there are several reasons, and we
may venture to discuss some of them.

The belief is strongly held by
some miners that the recent increase
of fires and explosions is the out-
come of the wider application of
electricity to coal mining. Since the
existing rules on electricity came
into force in 1903, there have been
fewer than 60 deaths officially at-
tributed to accidents connected with
electrical installations. To be exact,
51 such deaths were recorded in the

MINING ACCIDENTS

369

seven years 1903-9. This is a
small number, but the opinion is
held by not a few that some recent
explosions and fires^ involving great
loss of life, such as the Stanley pit
disaster in Durham, have been caused
by "the wires." Is it so? It is
known that one of the chief agencies
in colliery explosions is coal dust,
and it has been demonstrated that
coal dust can be ignited under crit-
ical conditions by almost any electrical
appliance employed in a coal mine.
It is at least possible for a blown
fuse, broken wire or "short circuit"
to spread disaster through igniting
coal dust. As a means of minimiz-
ing this danger Mr. Garforth, of
Altofts, and some other authorities
who have experimented with coal
dust, advise the spreading of stone
dust.

Electricians declare that electricity
has not yet had a fair trial in British
coal mines save in rare cases, and
they insist that, given suitable in-
stallations and efficient staffs of elec-
trical engineers and wiremen, elec-
tricity could not be classed as danger-
ous. At present it is not denied —
at any rate, it is not denied with any
convincing emphasis — that electricity
may spread disaster. What leading
colliery electricians do emphatically
insist upon — and this is the point of
real importance — is that a number of
mine owners refuse to employ either
efficient or sufficient staffs to main-
tain their electrical installations at a
reasonable pitch of safety.

Mr. Douglas S. Martin, in an
article in the Iron and Coal Trades
Reviezv, March 4, 1910, insisted, as
the minimum consistent with safety,
that a colliery with a generating
plant of anything over 300 kilowatts
should be staffed by a competent
electrical engineer in charge, an as-
sistant engineer, and at least four
wiremen. But Mr. Martin declares
that some collieries with installations
of several hundred kilowatts of
power and many miles of cable em-
ploy no more than two wiremen
under charge of an engineer who is

4-6

not an electrician. Similar plants in
manufacturing establishments would
be staffed by from six to ten quali-
fied men. And yet not nearly so
many repairs are needed above
ground as below ground. Falls and
bulges of roof and sides cause in-
numerable injuries to wires, distribut-
ing boxes and other apparatus in a
pit. Not only this, but the insula-
tion on the wires is frequently dam-
aged by the lads hanging their tub
clips on the cables and by similar
thoughtless tricks. There is an ele-
ment of danger in electricity when
properly controlled, but when the
electrical staffs are neither efficient
nor sufficient, and when the ap-
paratus is roughly treated by the
boys, and even by men, disasters are
being invited.

Another possible cause of mischief,
we venture to suggest, is the grow-
ing craze for amusement among the
rising generation of miners. The
„bulk of our miners are no longer
content to spend their evenings in the
villages. Cheap tram cars take them
to the city; the place of public
amusement attracts ; it is late when
they return home and get to bed ;
they rise in the morning half dazed
through insufficient sleep, and they
enter the pit lacking that mental
alertness which the natural dangers
of their calling demand. True it is
that miners, like other workers, are
more sober than they used to be, so
far as indulgence in strong drink is
concerned ; but can anyone deny that
there is a marked growth of care-
lessness among all classes, and that
the nerves of large numbers of our
people are affected by the influences
of an excess of ball games, cheap
trips and evening entertainments,
with their accompanying loss of
rest? Strong nerves and keen vigi-
lance are essential to safety in a
coal mine, but these characteristics
cannot be superabundant in persons
who do not get sufficient sleep and
quiet leisure.

Coincident with the craze for
nerve-racking amusement we seem to

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

have a growth of indiscipline and
lawlessness among our young men
and boys. Strikes at short notice and
upon trifling pretexts are becoming
far too common. These certainly
tend to create ill temper and militate
against that smooth working neces-
sary to the maximum of safety.

Then there is the question of State
supervision. Have we too much or
have we too little State control ? We
have a constant stream of mines
regulation acts, amendment acts, and
special rules. The intention behind
these measures is good, but is there
not ground for suspicion that the
effects are sometimes bad? Mine
managers are hedged about by too
many laws and regulations. They
are frequently trying to master their
duties, as laid down in voluminous
acts of Parliament, when they might
be better employed studying the
natural peculiarities of their own
particular mines. The gentlemen who
frame these laws seem to imagine
that all mines can be worked upon
one uniform principle. Sufficient
allowance is not made for the vary-
ing natural conditions. Too many
laws of an inflexible nature, imposed
upon all mines and all managers
regardless of local and individual
circumstances, must have the effect
of checking initiative and inspiring
the idea that it is more the business
of the State than the manager to
safeguard the workers. The State,
having gone so far in the matter of
law-making, surely ought to follow
this up by maintaining an inspector
at every mine to see that the law is
observed alike by worker and em-
ployer. If the State is so eager to
protect labor that ic leaves mine-
owners and managers with but a
mere shadow of freedom, then let
the State carry its policy to a logical
issue and relieve owners and man-
agers of the duty of looking after
the workers' as well as their own
interests. Let there be an ample
staff of inspectors to attend to the
safety of the workers and leave the
managers free to attend the business

of their employers, subject to the re-
quirements of the inspectors. Either
let us have less State interference or
full State control in matters of
safety. The policy of the State
being what it now is, it is not suffi-
cient that the inspectors employed by
the State should only, as a general
rule, visit the mines in case of acci-
dent. Let the inspectors be on the
spot constantly to prevent accidents.
If we had fewer laws and more in-
spectors it would be better. In the
workmen's compensation law, for
example, we have evidence that the
State, through excessive zeal and
misdirected effort, may do more
harm than good to the very workers
it seeks to benefit. It is not unlikely
that this law is one of the potent
causes of the recent increase of min-
ing accidents. That it has been the
means of increasing workshop acci-
dents is beyond dispute. This law
puts a premium upon young workmen.
In many manufacturing trades em-
ployers began to weed out their
elderly men after the compensation
bill was passed. In doing this the
employers were, as a matter of fact,
weeding out the safest men. As a
general rule it is the young man, and
not the older one, who is most likely
to cause an accident, and most likely
to produce injury to others through
leaving things unsafe. The older
man has most experience and can
exercise the greatest caution. Em-
ployers were not justified, on the
score of accidents alone, in turning
adrift the elder workers, but smart-
ing under what they considered an
unfair law — a law not permitting the
aged and delicate to contract out —
many employers did give preference
to young and strong workers. And
this, beyond all dispute, was one of
the main reasons why, within ten
years of the passing of the first
workmen's compensation act, the
number of workpeople injured in
factories and workshops increased
by 115 per cent, and the number
actually killed by 62 per cent. Here
is the proved case of an act spe-

MINING ACCIDENTS

37i

daily designed to benefit the workers
resulting in an aggravation of un-
employment and a multiplication of
accidents.

This policy of discarding the aged
worker in consequence of the law of
compensation has not been so gen-
erally adopted in coal mining as in
some manufacturing trades, but that
it has been adopted in some mines,
that it has involved the loss of ex-
perienced men and caused a diminu-
tion of safety, is highly probable.

We submit, therefore, that the
elimination of aged workers on ac-
count of the compensation law, the
growing spirit of indiscipline and
carelessness among the young miners,
the craze for nerve-destroying
amusement, too much State inter-
ference in small matters without ade-
quate inspection, and lack of care in
the application of electricity to coal
mining are some of the factors in the
recent deplorable rise in .the accident
death rate.

But, bad though we believe these
things to be, we hold that in the
new mines eight hours act an
agency has been introduced which
will add still further to the dangers
of mining. That the eight hours act
has already provoked strikes and
threats of strikes, that it has em-
bittered feeling between miners and
mine owners, and even between the
miners and their own leaders, and
that it has resulted in loss of trade
and wages, are by no means the
worst features of this measure. The
real mischief will come when mine
managers and miners have settled
down to make the best of this new
law — that is, assuming the law is
not altered. What the compensation
law has done in the workshop the
eight hours law will do in the
mine — banish the aged, experienced,
cautious and steady worker. Parlia-
ment and the nation will not realize
the real meaning of a law like this,
applied to all mines regardless of
the widely varying natural condi-
tions, until both men and masters
set to work in earnest to "speed up,"

and the results are set out in our
accident tables. Then the blunder-
ing, not to say criminal, character
of unjustifiable legislative interfer-
ence will be revealed in all its ugly
deformity. A coal mine is the last
place in the world from which the
aged worker should be banished. It
is the last place in the world where
undue "speeding up" should be en-
couraged. The eight hours act will
impel managers to get rid of their
aged men, and it will encourage them
to make "speeding up" a fine art.
It is of little use the State passing
innumerable acts compelling the
adoption of safety devices and res-
cue appliances if at the same time it
enacts other measures which provoke
and increase the dangers of the in-
dustry.

This new law will bring into ex-
istence at least three agencies that
will add to the risks of mining.
First there will be mechanical speed-
ing up, the acceleration of haulage
and windage, where this is possible ;
secondly, there will be the efforts of
some of the miners themselves to
counterbalance, as far as possible,
the reduction in their earning time by
less attention to propping, faults of
roof, etc., and thirdly, there will be
the loss of the elderly pitmen. Man-
agers of many mines will have little
option but to employ only the most
vigorous men, the men who can get
the most coal in the least time. Not
only will there be a gradual substi-
tution of inexperience and reckless
men for experienced and cautious
men, and all the increase of danger
that involves, in the first instance;
but it must be remembered that the
aged pitman frequently exercises a
vigilance over and gives valuable
advice to his younger mates. The
loss of the elderly pitman — the loss
of his caution, watchfulness and ad-
vice— will be an incalculable loss.
As direct results of this eight hours
act the aged and delicate will be
turned adrift, the young and strong
will be goaded on, and accidents will
increase. Unemployment will be ag-

372

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

gravated, toil intensified, and dangers
multiplied. The mines eight hours
act, unless it is speedily amended,
will prove costily in life, limb and
suffering as well as in pounds, shil-
lings and pence. Indeed, the acci-
dents already recorded during the
few months it has been in operation
are higher than the average for a
good many years.

We are told that with increased care
on the part of the working miners
themselves, particularly in watching
for bulges and possible falls, of roof,
with more strict discipline among the
youths, with more efficient inspection
and fewer harassing "rules," with a

sufficient number of competent men
to look after every underground elec-
tarical installation; with the spread-
ing of stone dust wherever coal dust
accumulates ; with the provision of
safety chambers for men to get into
in case of fire or explosion, and
ample signalling arrangements be-
tween these chambers and the pit
head ; with rescue stations in every
mining district and breathing ap-
paratus at every mine, and last, but
not least, the repeal or drastic amend-
ment of the eight hours act, we
should once more see a steady decline
instead of an increase in our mining
accident death rate.

THE PROPULSION OF CARGO BOATS

By R. M. Neilson

II. PROPULSION BY INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES.

In the first portion of this discussion, published in the July issue, the author examined the relative
advantages of reciprocating engines and steam turbines, and also referred to the proposed use of speed
reduction gearing to enable high-speed turbines to be employed for the operation of screw propellers
at moderate rotative speeds. The advantages of superheating were shown and the various systems
illustrated by practical examples. The present article closes the discussion with a consideration of the
applicability of the internal-combustion engine to the practical propulsion of cargo boats. — The Editor.

THE last system of propulsion
for cargo boats, which will
be considered in this article,
is that by internal combustion en-
gines.

Internal combustion engines have not
as yet been employed as the propelling
machinery of cargo boats except for
vessels of comparatively small size and
power, but the success that has been
met with in recent 'ears in the pro-
pulsion of small vessels, and the im-
provements that have recently been
effected in internal combustion en-
gines, together with the more widely
spread knowledge of these engines
and the decrease in prejudice against
them — all these considerations taken
together render it necessary to seri-
ously consider the internal combus-
tion engine as a possible prime mover
for use, even at the present day, for
propelling cargo vessels. The success
which has been attained within the
last few years with "motor" boats
driven by explosion engines employ-
ing a light spirit, has little relevancy
to the problem now being considered.
Coal and heavy oil are the only fuels
that need be considered in this
article; and strong, durable engines,
with moderate propeller speeds, are
desirable for cargo boats.

Until recently the suggestion to
employ an internal combustion engine
to drive a cargo boat over 200 horse-
power did not constitute a practical
proposition which a ship owner
would seriously consider ; at the
present day the case is different. The
advances made in connection with

internal combustion engines during
the last few years may not seem
great (engines for motor cars, or
boats, or for aeronautical purposes
excepted), but they have been suffi-
cient to place the internal combustion
engine at the present day in the
position of a competitor for the pro-
pulsion of the smaller classes of
cargo boat, and a competitor which
cannot be ignored.

The advantages of internal com-
bustion engines for ship propulsion
have, without doubt, been often over-
rated, and unfair comparisons have
been made ; and the writer is not of
opinion that internal combustion
engines have yet been proved to be
suitable for driving battleships,
cruisers or Atlantic liners; but an
impartial investigation of the subject
must force the admission that there
is at present no serious objection to
their employment for cargo boats of
powers up to about 1,000 horsepower,
and that for such vessels the only
questions to be considered in connec-
tion with propelling machinery are
of a financial nature. It may be said
that the limit to power above men'
tioned cuts off the more numerous
and more important class of cargo
boats — vessels of more than 1,000
horsepower ; the writer admits this.
The limit to power may, however, be
expected to rise, whether at an early
date or only after many years, can-
not safely be predicted at present.

Internal combustion propulsive ma-
chinery for cargo boats may be
divided into two classes, the first

373

374

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

class involving the use of gas pro-
ducers and gas engines, and the sec-
ond class the use of heavy oil en-
gines.

GAS PRODUCERS AND GAS ENGINES

All gas engines which at the pres-
ent day could be recommended for
ship propulsion are of the explosion
type. Both the four-stroke (Otto)
and the two-stroke (Clerk) cycle are
in extensive use on land, and either
could be used for ship propulsion.
The two-stroke cycle allows of the
building of a lighter engine for the
same power, which is an advantage on
board ship ; but a much greater ad-
vantage possessed by this cycle rests
in the fact that for a given maximum
allowable irregularity in turning mo-
ment and a given maximum dimen-
sion of cylinder, the number of cyl-
inders required in a two-stroke cycle
engine will be only half that required
on a four-stroke cycle engine for the
same power; and therefore an engine
working on the former cycle will be
little more than half the length of an
engine on the latter.

As regards the producer, this may
be either of the pressure or the suc-
tion type, the relative advantages of
the two systems, the design of the
producer, and the cleansing of the
gas, constitute important details
which, however, would require more
space to deal with adequately than is
here available.

The gas engine installation on H.
M. S. Rattler has already been de-
cribed in Cassier's Magazine.* Suf-
fice it to say here that the Rattler is
a gunboat of an old type (she was
built in 1886), and has the following
dimensions: Length, 165 feet; beam,
29 feet; mean draught, 11 feet 2
inches; displacement about 715 tons.
The vessel was originally fitted with
reciprocating steam engines, which
under forced draught are said to
have indicated 1,000 horse-power and
propelled the ship at 13 knots, while
under natural draught the indicated
horse-power was 600 and the speed
1 1.5 knots. The steam engines and

* November, 1908, Vol. XXXV, page 193.

boilers were removed and replaced
by a Beardmore-Capitaine gas en-
gine and suction producer of about
500 brake horsepower. With both
types of machinery a single screw
was employed.

The gas engines comprise five
vertical single-acting cylinders, with
a flywheel arranged in an intermedi-
ate position on the crank shaft.
Each cylinder is 20 inches in diam-
eter, and the stroke is 24 inches ; and
the engine is intended to run at
about 120 revolutions per minute.

HEAVY OIL ENGINES

The two types of heavy oil engine
which would appear to be most suit-
able for use on cargo boats are (1)
the Diesel type, in which oil is in-
jected into the combustion chamber
at the end of the compression stroke
and ignited as it enters, due to the
temperature of compression, and (2)
the Hornsby type, in which the oil is
sprayed on to a hot surface within
the combustion chamber and ignited
by contact with this surface. Both
these types of engine are run both
on the two-stroke and the four-
stroke cycle.

The Diesel engine has been
brought to great perfection and re-
liability in Great Britain by the Mirr-
lees Watson Company, Ltd., of Glas-
gow, and by their successors in oil
engine work, Messrs. Mirrlees,
Bickerton & Day, Ltd., of Hazel
Grove, near Stockport. The engine,
as made by these firms, is of the
four-stroke single-acting type, and is
started and reversed by means of
compressed air supplied from reser-
voirs which are charged by a two-
stage compressor driven directly by
the engine.

The illustrations show a proposed
arrangement of Mirrlees-Diesel en-
gines for propelling an oil-carrying
vessel of 1,800 tons displacement.
The length of the ship is 194 feet,
beam 35 feet, and draught 12 feet.
There are two sets of six-cylinder
engines, each set being capable of
developing 300 brake-horse-power

CARGO-SHIP PROPULSION

375

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

when running at 250 revolutions per
minute. The engines are intended to
drive the boat at a speed of 9^
knots.

When proceeding ahead at any
speed between full speed and half
speed, the engine and propeller shafts
are coupled together by means of a
combined friction and positive clutch
C, the speed being varied between
these limits by controlling apparatus
fitted on the engine. On each engine
shaft is secured a dynamo, D, cap-
able of developing about 60 brake-
horse-power at 125 revolutions per
minute, and on each propeller shaft is
secured a reversible variable speed
motor M, capable of absorbing the
full power of the dynamo ; the usual
bearings, thrust block, etc., are pro-
vided.

When manoeuvring ahead and astern
with the propellers, or proceeding
ahead at less than half speed, the
engine and propeller shafts are dis-
connected and the dynamos on the
engine shafts operate the motors
on the propeller shafts, the en-
gine and dynamos running at
a constant speed of 125 revo-
lutions per minute, and the speed and
direction of rotation for the motors
being conrolled electrically by vary-
ing the intensity and direction of the
current in the field windings. In
emergency, such as to avoid collision
when running electrically, it is possi-
ble to increase the speed of the
engine up to 250 revolutions per
minute, whereby the dynamos and
motors are overloaded for a short
period, which overload they will
stand safely for a reasonable time.
The electrical arrangements are so
disposed that either dynamo can
operate either or both motors, thus
providing against a breakdown of
either dynamo or engine. The start-
ing compressed air receivers for the
engines are independent, but are
cross-connected so that either may
act as a reserve to the other.

An auxiliary Diesel engine of 45
brake-horse-power coupled to a 30-
kilowatt generator provides the neces-

sary power for lighting the vessel
and for working electrical auxilaries.
This engine has a set of starting re-
ceivers of its own, and these are
interconnected with those of the
main engines, thus providing an addi-
tional safeguard against loss of start-
ing air.

The total weight of the propelling
machinery, including oil engines, air
compressors, air reservoirs, dynamos,
motors, shafting, clutches, thrust
blocks and propellers is only no
tons; but it must be remembered
that at full speed the propellers make
250 revolutions per minute.

Although the arrangement shown
in the illustrations has only been pro-
posed and has not yet been fitted in
a vessel, the engines are of the stand-
ard design of Messrs. Mirrlees,
Bickerton & Day, Ltd. ; and several
engines of the size of the main en-
gines shown in the figures have been
constructed by the firm and are now
running and giving satisfaction.

An engine of the Hornsby type
which is at present employed to a
considerable extent in the driving of
Lshing boats and other small craft is
that built by the J. & C. G. Bolinders
Co., Ltd., of Stockholm, Sweden.
This engine works on a two-stroke
cycle, and no valves are employed
except that through which air is
drawn into the crank chamber on the
up-stroke of the piston for admission
into the engine cylinder at the end of
the downstroke. Oil is at the end of
the compression stroke sprayed into
an igniter bulb situated at the top of the
combustion chamber, which bulb is
kept sufficiently hot by the explosions
during the normal working of the
engines. For starting the engine the
bulb is heated by means of an ex-
ternal lamp. Reversal is effected by
cutting out the main fuel feed pumps
(one for each cylinder), and putting
into action an auxiliary fuel pump
which injects fuel oil into the cylin-
der (or one of the cylinders) at an
early period of the compression
stroke. The premature explosions
thus produced cause reversal of the

CARGO-SHIP PROPULSION

377

engine in a few revolutions — say in
about a second in an 80 horsepower
engine — and the auxiliary pump is
then cut out and the main pumps re-
turned to action. A single to and fro
movement of a lever affects the re-
versal of the engine.

The writer had an opportunity a
short time ago, through the courtesy
of Messrs. Douglas, Primrose & Co.,
the Glasgow agents of the Bolinders
Company, to witness the working of
a Bolinders 80-horse-power engine on
a large Swedish fishing boat. The en-
gine made 300 to 400 revolutions per
minute, and was easily started and
reversed.

Mirrlees-Diesel engines have been
built of a size to give 125 brake-
horse-power per cylinder, and Bolin-
ders engines of a size to give 80
brake-horse-power per cylinder. There
should be no difficulty in constructing
such engines with four, five or six
cylinders to give about 480 or 500
brake-horse-power, so that • two sets
of such engines, each driving a
propeller shaft, should give an aggre-
gate propulsive effort equal to a
single steam engine of about 1,000
indicated horse-power, allowing for a
less propeller efficiency with the oil
engines.

A strong objection which used to
exist to the employment of internal
combustion engines for ship propul-
sion lay in the difficulty or unrelia-
bility of the starting or reversing
operations. These difficulties have
been completely removed in the two
types of engines above mentioned.
In the Bolinders engine the devices
for starting and reversing have al-
ready been described. The Mirrlees-
Diesel engine starts by means of
compressed air with the utmost re-
liability; and reversing in engines
suitable for cargo boats is effected
by an electric gear of the nature of
that described with reference to the
accompanying illustrations.

If it is admitted that propulsion of
cargo boats by gas or oil engines up
to 1,000 horsepower per vessel con-
stitutes a practical proposition (as

the writer has sought to show in this
case) this system of propulsion must
then have its advantages and disad-
vantages compared with those of
other systems. So little has been
done in the way of marine propul-
sion by gas or heavy oil engines that
the weights of engines which it
would be desirable to employ in cargo
boats cannot be given with exacti-
tude. The weights of gas engines
and producers, or of oil engines,
should, however, be less than the
weights of steam reciprocating pro-
pelling machinery, taking suitable
propeller speeds in all cases. The
reduction in weight of total propel-
ling machinery, as far as can be esti-
mated at present, would probably be
between 10 and 40 per cent. Com-
parisons of weight for naval pur-
poses are, of course, of little value
in the present investigation.

The weight of and the space occu-
pied by propelling machinery being
less for gas or oil motors than for
steam engines, it follows that a ves-
sel of less displacement will suffice
to carry the same cargo. Moreover,
owing to the greater efficiency ob-
tained by adopting the internal com-
bustion principle, a less weight of
fuel will suffice for a voyage of given
duration. Both these statements
apply in all cases, but in vessels
making short voyages, and in which
the weight of fuel carried is small,
the second consideration is of little
moment. For long voyages, how-
ever, without re-fueling the bunker
or tank capacity can be very much
reduced for gas or oil motors, and
greater economy in displacement can
therefore be effected in long voyage
than in short voyage vessels. Short
voyages will be more usual for the
size of cargo boats considered. If
for a vessel of, say, 4,000 tons dis-
placement and 1,000 indicated horse-
power, 100 tons weight could be
saved in machinery and fuel by
adopting gas engines and producers
with coal fuel, or oil engines using
heavy oil fuel in place of reciprocat-
ing steam engines with boilers burn-

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

ing coal or oil, the displacement of
the vessel could be reduced probably
by a little more than ioo tons; and
a reduction in the initial cost of the
vessel, excluding machinery, of be-
tween £300 and £500 might be
effected. The exact reduction would
vary considerably according to the
conditions of the case. If the cost
of machinery were unchanged, then
the saving in initial cost of the com-
plete vessel would be approximately
as above mentioned ; and in any case
the difference in initial cost would
be too small to be a serious factor in
determining the system of propul-
sion.

A distinct advantage of the internal
combustion engine has reference to
the saving in stoking. Gas pro-
ducers do not require to be fed with
coal at such frequent intervals as do
steam boilers, and the work of stok-
ing is not so arduous. With oil
engines the fuel is pumped directly
from the tanks into the engine so
that a single man can attend to the
whole machinery.

It will not be fair, however, to
compare oil engines with steam plants
using coal as fuel. Plants involving
the use of gas engines and producers
can be compared with plants involv-
ing steam engines and boilers burn-
ing coal ; but the steam plant to be
compared with oil engines must in-
volve the employment of oil as fuel
in the boilers.

Cost of Fuel.
As regards cost of fuel, the con-
sumption of coal with internal com-
bustion engines may be taken as
about three-quarters of a pound per
indicated horse-power per hour, while
twice that rate of consumption rep-
resents good practice in cargo boats
with reciprocating steam engines em-
ploying saturated steam and boilers
burning good coal. For a vessel of
1,000 indicated horse-power this rep-
resents a saving of about 8 tons
a day. With 250 days running in
the year, the annual saving would be
£2,000, with coal at £1 a ton, and

£1,500 with coal at 15 shillings.
For an average of 70 hours' running
in the week, the saving would be
£1,220 a year for coal at 20 shil-
lings, and £915 for coal at 15 shil-
lings.

As regards oil fuel, this, if burned
in a boiler and the steam supplied
in a saturated and, to a certain ex-
tent, wet state to a triple-expansion
or quadruple-expansion engine, will
produce about one indicated horse-
power for 1 to 1.4 pounds of oil per
hour. An oil engine, on the other
hand, will use only from 0.45 to 0.7
pounds of oil per hour per brake-
horse-power. Allowing for a differ-
ence of 0.6 pounds of oil per indi-
cated horse-power per hour between
external and internal combustion,
then for a vessel of 1,000 indicated
horse-power the saving effected by
adopting internal combustion engines
would be about &/> tons per day.
The price of oil varies greatly, de-
pending on the nature of the oil, on
the port at which it is purchased, and
on the market conditions.

The table herewith gives the an-
nual saving to be effected according
to the price of oil and the aggregate
duration of time that the vessel is
under way in the year. For ex-
ample, if oil costs fifty shillings a
ton, and the vessel runs 200 complete
days in the year, the yearly saving
will be £3,220.

ANNUAL SAVING WITH OIL ENGINES.

Cost of Oil Fuel,
per Ton.

Full Days'
250

Running per Annum.
200 150

£ ■*■ d.

£ £

3 10 0
3 0 0
2 10 0
2 0 0
1 10 0

5,630
4,820
4,020
3,220
2,410

4,500 3,380
3,860 2,900
3,220 2,410
2,580 1,930
1,930 1,450

In the above comparisons of
weight and cost, it has been assumed
that the internal combustion engines
would run at about 100 revolutions
per minute, so that the propeller effi-
ciency (with twin screws) would not
be far different from that obtained
with a reciprocating steam engine
driving a single screw at 60 to 90
revolutions per minute. If any com-

CARGO-SHIP PROPULSION

379

parisons are made between high-
speed oil engines and low-speed
steam engines, allowance must of
course be made for the difference in
propeller efficiency.

Conclusions.

If mechanical gearing under the
rough-and-tumble conditions of cargo
boat service proves as satisfactory as
it has given promise of on trial, and
if the frictional losses in the gearing,
including the losses in the wheel and
pinion bearings, amount to not more
than about 6 per cent, of the power
transmitted — which is a much greater
loss than has been experienced with
either the Parsons or the Melville-
Macalpine gears on trial — the writer
is convinced that the best steam pro-
pulsion machinery for cargo boats is
undoubtedly that which comprises
high-speed steam turbines and me-
chanical reduction gearing. A pro-
pulsion scheme of this nature would
have an advantage over the usual
reciprocating steam engine direct
drive both as regards initial cost of
vessel with machinery and as regards
working costs; and" this statement
applies whether saturated or super-
heated steam is employed, it being
assumed that if superheated steam is
used on the one case it will also be
used in the other.

As regards the other steam plant
schemes which have been discussed
in these articles, those involving high-
speed steam turbines with low-speed
propellers and electric or hydraulic
transmission of power would not be
so efficient as the propulsion scheme
with a high-speed turbine or turbines*
and mechanical gearing; and the
electrical scheme would, moreover,
involve a heavier initial outlay. It
may further be remarked that the
spending of money on research work
on electric or hydraulic transmission
of power cannot be recommended
until the mechanical gearing scheme
is tested in active service.

The jet propulsion scheme referred
to in the first portion of these articles
would have certain advantages over

that with mechanical gearing; but at
the present moment it cannot be
recommended in the absence of suffi-
cient knowledge as to probable effi-
ciency; and it might turn out to be
hopelessly out of the running.

As regards the recipro-turbine
combination with direct propeller
drive, this scheme allows of the at-
tainment of an efficiency about equal
to that which could be obtained with
a high-speed turbine and mechanical
gearing, allowing for a slightly in-
ferior propeller efficiency with the
shaft or shafts directly turbine-
driven. The recipro-turbine combi-
nation involves, however, machinery
which is, relatively speaking, heavy,
bulky and complicated ; and no ship
owner would be well advised to
choose it for a cargo boat if mechan-
ical gearing proves in service to be
efficient, reliable and without serious
objection.

If, therefore, mechanical gearing
proves satisfactory, the ship owner
need have no hesitation as to his
choice of steam plant, if steam plant
is to be employed, but he will still
have two questions to answer : ( I )
Shall he adopt steam plant or shall
he employ internal combustion en-
gines? (2) Shall be employ coal or
heavy oil as fuel?

The fuel question is chiefly one of
cost of supplies. It has been said
that oil for fuel is not always ob-
tainable at ports at which it might be
required. The output of heavy oil
suitable as fuel is not, however, lim-
ited to any one portion of the world,
and if there were sufficient demand
for oil, owing to the price being
sufficiently low — and this necessarily
assumes that the production is suffi-
cient to meet the demand — then oil
could be obtained at seaports nearly
as readily as coal. On questions
connected with the world's oil sup-
plies and the probable price of heavy
oils in the near future experts differ,
and such questions are boyend the
scope of the present article.

Oil weighs less than coal for the
same heat energy, and it can be

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

stowed into considerably less space
than coal, weight for weight, so that
the employment of oil calls for very
much less bunker capacity than coal.
Moreover, places can be utilized for
stowing oil which would not be ap-
plicable for holding coal, so that a
considerable saving in space may be
effected by employing oil as fuel,
which may allow of a reduction in
the light weight of a vessel for a
given cargo-carrying capacity. More-
over, a reduction in boiler capacity
can be effected by employing oil
owing to the periodic cleaning of
fires necessary with coal ; and the
absence of trimming, which is neces-
sary with coal, represents another
advantage of oil fuel. All these
points contribute to the reduction of
the initial cost of the vessel ; and the
oil fuel has the advantages as re-
gards wages in the running costs.

The cost of fuel is, however, rela-
tively such an important question
that unless oil can be sold at a price
not greatly in excess of that of
coal — the comparison being made on
a thermal basis — oil has, in the writ-
er's opinion, little chance of being
extensively used for the propulsion
of cargo boats, whether employed to
generate steam or consumed in in-
ternal combustion engines.

As regards the other question as
to whether internal combustion en-
gines are to be employed, or high-
speed steam turbines with mechanical
gearing, this question is, to a certain
extent, influenced by the fuel ques-
tion because the use of oil fuel for
internal combustion engines obviates
the necessity of producers ; but even
with coal fuel the internal combustion
engine will be a serious competitor.
The writer is inclined to the belief
that where coal is the fuel there will
be little to choose between the in-
ternal combustion engine with gas
producer, and the high-speed steam
turbine with boilers and mechanical
gearing, for powers up to 1,000
horse-power, and that where or when
oil is employed as fuel the internal
combustion engine will be preferable

up to the power stated. For power;,
above 1,000 horse-power the writer
is of opinion that the steam plant is
to be preferred. It may be necessary,
however, to make exceptions to these
rules, and it would be well if the
question were considered independ-
ently for every proposed new vessel.
Moreover, conditions may alter in a
few years, and it would not be sur-
prising if further improvements in
internal combustion engines made
them at the end of a few years from
now masters of the situation as re-
gards all sizes of cargo boats work-
ing under all conditions.

When high-speed steam turbines
with mechanical gearing are em-
ployed the writer believes that the
steam will be superheated in the
majority of cases, as the advantages
of adopting superheat with high-
speed turbines would appear to dis-
tinctly overweigh the disadvantages,
except possibly as regards small ves-
sels or vessels running only a com-
paratively small number of hours in
the year, in which cases the yearly
fuel bill will be relatively small.

We have been assuming that me-
chanical gearing, used in conjunction
with high-speed steam turbines,
proves a success. If it should not
prove successful, the internal com-
bustion engine will not experience
such formidable competition, and the
writer considers that in such a case
internal combustion engines would
certainly be preferable for all cargo
vessels of 1,000 horsepower and
under, whether employing coal or oil
as fuel. For vessels of powers of
1,000 to 3,000 horsepower, the writer
would generally recommend recipro-
cating steam engines ; and for powers
of over 3,000, and in certain cases
between 2,000 and 3,000, the recipro-
turbine combination would appear to
represent the best system of propul-
sion.

The writer would be inclined to
favour generally the employment of
superheated steam for the steam-
driven ships, whether or not a low
pressure turbine is employed.

Gtarretit topics

THE change which has taken
place in the general consider-
ation of the subject of the
application of electric traction to
main line railway appears very
clearly in the important paper pre-
sented before the joint meeting of
the Institution of Mechanical En-
gineers and the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers in London by
Mr. George Westinghouse, president
of the latter society.

When electric traction was first
proposed it was considered imprac-
ticable for several reasons, the prin-
cipal one being the immense sacrifice
involved in scrapping the steam loco-
motives already in active service and
capable of many years of further
useful work. When later it was
found most desirable to employ elec-
tric locomotives for use in tunnels
and underground connections where
the presence of smoke and steam
was objectionable, the use of elec-
tricity was conceded as a special
matter, not bearing in any way upon
the great portion of the department
of motive power. Gradually, how-
ever, the use of electricity has be-
come extended to a point where it is
most important to make plans for
future standardization, and this is
the feature which is most forcibly
emphasized in the paper by Mr.
Westinghouse.

One of the immense advantages of
railways in the transport of passen-
gers and merchandise lies in the
possibility of making continuous
journeys over long distances without
interruption. The development of
this advantage has impressed upon
the railway engineer the necessity of
such a degree of interchangeability
as will permit the rolling stock of
one railway to be operated directly
upon all others.

Mr. Westinghouse calls attention
to the serious obstacle which the use
of different gauges of track opposed
to the interchange of traffic and
shows the great advantages which
have followed by the general use
of the Stephenson gauge of 4 ft.
8j4 in. Similar advantages have re-
sulted from the adoption of inter-
changeable types of couplings, of
interchangeable brake systems, as
well as of heating apparatus, and of
signals for trains. Most of these
have had to make their way in the
face of previous differences, and the
cost in time and money incurred be-
cause of the absence of any previous
standardization has been both great
and unnecessary.

The railway engineer is now con-
fronted with a similar state of af-
fairs in connection with the use of
electric power for traction. Already
a number of main line railways are

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using electricity upon certain por-
tions of their systems for tunnels,
for entrance into cities in which
steam locomotives are objectionable,
and for certain departments of su-
burban service. The extension of
these electrified portions means that
ultimately they will meet, and unless
the various railways conduct this
extension work upon plans which
are capable of standardization, at
least to such an extent that inter-
changeability is possible, the result
will be much the same as in the
days of different gauges of track.

It is certain that such standardiza-
tion is a matter involving many diffi-
culties, but the difficulties existing
at the present time are slight com-
pared with what may exist if the
work is postponed much longer.
Such standardization, if properly
effected, does not necessarily mean
a limitation to a single system of
construction, but simply that the
parts which must be operated to-
gether shall be designed with that
end in view. The "paralyzing in-
fluence of standardization" occurs
only when it is carried too far, and
when the attempt to force some pre-
conceived details is permitted to
overbalance the real essentials de-
manded for commercial interchange-
ability.

Mr. Westinghouse has not spoken
a moment too soon ; already some
work has doubtless been done which
will have to be undone, but the
points which must be standardized
in order that future confusion, delay
and unnecessary expense shall be
minimized ought to be placed in the
hands of a competent body of im-
partial engineers at the earliest
possible moment.

In connection with the subject of
the introduction of electric traction in
the place of the steam locomotive,
the objection based upon enormous

loss due to the abandonment of pres-
ent motive power equipment may be
noticed. That such expense must
be incurred cannot be denied; no
great advance of such a nature was
ever effected without the expenditure
of sums far beyond those required
for the system which was super-
seded. One has only to turn back
to the discussions which took place
when steam railways were introduced
to find arguments concerning the
immense cost of locomotives over
stage coaches to find much that has
since been repeated. It is not abso-
lute costs which should be considered
so much as relative expenditures,
comparing results in both cases with
the costs involved in their produc-
tion.

Another point which has not al-
ways been taken into account appears
in the fact that equipment is con-
tinually being replaced in any case,
and that the time required for the
installation of electrical equipment
period during which the present ma-
chinery would have outlived its use-
fulness. No one proposes to scrap
all the steam locomotives at once,
and no existing manufacturing fa-
cilities could possibly replace such
equipment with the new machinery
in a brief time. Doubtless the intro-
duction of electric traction will be a
matter of growth, various sections
and zones being extended, and their
connections lengthened until the old
is replaced by the new in about the
time which would have been de-
manded even had the replacement
been of the same kind. One has only
to look at the manner in which trans-
formations of similar nature have
been effected in ocean transport to
perceive how these things settle
themselves as matters of growth
without sudden changes or exces-
sive wastefulness in current equip-
ment.

COUNT FERDINAND ZEPPELIN

A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Ferdinand, Count von Zeppelin,
whose perseverance and largely suc-
cessful efforts in the production of
an operative type of dirigible balloon
in Germany, is a man of wide experi-
ence in military affairs, and a practical
scientist whose career is of much in-
terest to engineers

Born in 1838, near Friedrichshafen,
on the Lake of Constance, he received
his education at the Polytechnic
School at Stuttgart, at the Military
Academy at Ludwigsburg, and at the
University of Tubingen.

Ludwigsburg itself contains an im-
posing monument by the sculptor
Dannecker, erected to the memory of
his ancestor, Count Zeppelin, minis-
ter to King Frederick, this memorial
having been erected by the order of
the latter in 1801,

His military career began in the
German army in 1861, and two years
later he was detailed for observation
duty with the Union army in the Civil
War in the United States, serving
with distinction as a cavalry officer
until the close of the war in 1865. His
inclination toward aeronautics ap-
peared even at this early period of his
career, and while connected with the
army of the Potomac he made an as-
cent in a captive balloon to make ob-
servations of the enemy.

He narrowly escaped capture at the
battle of Fredericksburg, where he
was serving on the staff of General
Carl Schurz, and displayed marked
bravery in action. On his return to
Germany he took part in the Austro-
Prussian war of 1866, and in the
Franco-Prussian war of 1870, making
a brilliant dash across the frontier
into French territory only a few hours
after the declaration of war, being ac-
companied by four officers and seven

troopers, all of whom were either
killed or captured, Zeppelin himself
alone making his escape. He served
throughout the war with France, and
after the formation of the German
Empire he became plenipotentiary of
his native country of Wurtemburg at
Berlin, and representative in the Fed-
eral Council of the Empire.

It was in 1891 that Count Zeppelin
began to make experiments with di-
rigible balloons, devoting to it his
time, energy and personal fortune.
The previous efforts of Col. Renard,
in France, had been made with a ci-
gar-shaped balloon, without stiffening
framework, and deriving its motive
power from a heavy primary electric
battery.

During the intervening years, two
important developments had occurred
which modified the situation very ma-
terially ; the electric decomposition of
corundum had furnished cheap alumi-
num, and the demands of the auto-
mobile had produced the light-weight,
high-power gasoline motor. Zeppelin
adapted both of these to his ideas for
the construction of a new type of di-
rigible balloon, employing the light
metal for the construction of a stiffen-
ing framework, and using the motor
of his fellow countryman, Daimler, at
Stuttgart, for his engines.

The magnitude of this work, and
the number of failures which accom-
panied these experiments, would have
discouraged almost any man, but
Zeppelin kept on in the face of ex-
penditures which exhausted his entire
private means, and led him to be con-
sidered by many as a man who had
sacrificed fortune, reputation and the
better part of his life in a vain en-
deavour.

In 1908, however, his great dirig-

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ible, No. 4, made a successful trip
from Friedrichshafen to Frankfort,
and when this success was followed by
a disaster which destroyed the ma-
chine, funds were raised by the gov-
ernment and by popular subscription
to enable the work to be continued.

On June 22, of this year, the
Diietschland, the latest Zeppelin di-
rigible, opened what was intended to
be a regular aerial service, and car-
ried twelve persons from the Lake of
Constance to Diisseldorf, a distance
of 250 miles ; making an average speed
of 28 miles an hour.

A later trip met with disaster, but
the successes which have been attained
with the later Zeppelin balloons indi-
cate that so far as aerial navigation
with large dirigibles is concerned, the
system so laboriously developed by
Count Zeppelin will have its practical
uses, and especially in military ser-
vice the Zeppelin balloon will prove
an important factor.

The principal features of the Zep-
pelin type, as evolved from this long
series of experimental work on the
large scale, include the use of a light

metallic framework, forming what is
practically a cylindrical structure with
pointed ends, this containing a num-
ber of isolated spherical balloons filled
with gas to produce the sustaining
power. The whole is covered by a
protecting envelope, so that the ex-
ternal appearance indicates nothing of
the interior arrangement. Two cars
connected by a lighter passageway,
are suspended from the balloon, and
each car is provided with two propel-
lers, one on each side, each propeller
having its own engine. All the Zep-
pelins have been of large size, the
Deutschland being 485 feet long and
46 feet in diameter, with a capacity of
nearly 25,000 cubic yards, and a lift-
ing power of 44,000 pounds. Not-
withstanding all the discourage-
ments which have been experienced by
Count Zeppelin, he may feel that his
work has not been in vain, and the ex-
tent to which he has demonstrated to
government, to capitalists and to the
public the feasibility of his plans is
sufficient to assure his position as the
leader in the "lighter-than-air" type
of flying machine.

IRA H. WOOLSON,
Consulting Engineer to the National Board of Fire Underwriters.

See page 480.

INDEXED.

Cassier's Magazine

Vol. XXXVIII

AN ENGINEERING MONTHLY

SEPTEMBER, 1910

THE BRUSSELS INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION

By J. O. Newman

WHEN the writer visited the
grounds of the exhibition
twelve months ago, a gen-
eral survey of the enormous amount
of work already executed indicated
that the authorities responsible for the
management would probably attain
their avowed object of contributing a
record in readiness. However, al-
though the exhibition opened on April
23, and by the end of December last
not only the buildings but all fittings
were to be absolutely complete and
ready for the reception of exhibits,
something remains still to be done at
the time of writing. The hard win-
ter which intervened between the
dates mentioned is partly to blame
for this.

The exhibition is situated in the
plain of Solbosch adjoining the Bois
de la Cambre, and has the dark
masses of the Forest of Soignies as
a background in the east. The
suburbs of Brussels on the west are
entirely hidden by the exhibition
buildings, and otherwise such good
use has been made of the topo-
graphical features of the ground that
the whole represents quite a sepa-
rate and independent world, which
includes the highest point above sea
level which exists between Brussels
and the sea.

An extension of the magnificent
Avenue Louise and electric tram-
ways, for which a separate terminus
has been constructed inside the gates
of the exhibition, provides ample
means of access at a cheap rate.
This terminus is in direct connec-
tion with all the main and vicinal
railway stations, and thence a double
track of tramways enables visitors
to reach any part of the grounds
without walking. Rikshas and bath
chairs are also provided.

The exhibition is under the patron-
age of the King of Belgium, and the
government is partaking officially,
but the enterprise was promoted by
a company with a capital of 2,600,-
000 francs, and, through the cour-
tesy of Count de Burgh, the general
manager, we were able to procure
the service of M. Fourbin, the chief
superintendent, who proved an able
and valuable guide on our visit.

The buildings generally are made
of a framework of wood and iron,
or, in the case of the smaller pavil-
ions, of wood only.

The walls are covered with "staff,"
a mixture of hemp threads and plas-
ter of paris, which is particularly
well adapted for modeled pieces, and,
being light, can be cast in very large
sections. In appearance, "staff" re-

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

BRUSSELS EXPOSITION, MAIN ENTRANCE

sembles Keane's cement in whiteness,
but it can be coloured either before
or after moulding.

The center of the main building
presents an elegant front, designed
on large lines, giving an impression
of solidity and repose much in har-
mony with its wooded surroundings.
This main building contains the ad-
ministrative offices near the entrance,
and has 35,000 square metres of
space for Belgian exhibits, and at
right angles, under the same roof,
15,000 square metres reserved for
the exhibits of the United Kingdom.

Since visitors passing from the
main entrance to the other sections
and to the Machinery Hall are
bound to pass through it, the United
Kindgom has thus secured what is
really the best position in the whole
exhibition, and great credit is due to
the British Commission for insisting
upon this particular site.

Previous to the opening, the new
exhibition's branch of the Board of
Trade held provincial meetings, at
which addresses were delivered by
the Earl of Lytton and Sir Swire
Smith, chairman and vice-chairman

of che commission, and by Mr. U. F.
Wintour, the British Commissioner-
General.

Subsequently individual firms were
canvassed and it was found that
both among British manufacturers
and traders much discouragement
had been caused by the superior
policy of France, Germany and other
countries, where permanent organiza-
tions for the care of exhibitors' in-
terests have existed for years. The
evidence taken by the departmental
committee showed a widespread dis-
position to cease exhibiting, even in
trades which had everything to gain
bv the effective display of their goods
abroad. It showed also that the
national reputation was suffering, as
the effect of inadequate displays.

King George, then Prince of
Wales, as president of the Royal
Commission, made a powerful ap-
peal for a special national effort, and
it is very gratifying to see that many
firms have taken up space and have
gone to considerable expense with-
out any heed to individual gain. The
British section is essentially one of
collective exhibits. Public spirit and

THE BRUSSELS EXPOSITION

389

foresight have prompted exhibitors to
forego their individual rivalries and
combine in powerful and attractive
displays which will add considerably
to the national prestige. Foremost
amongst these are Huddersfield and
Bradfield and South of Scotland
textile trades, which have made a
show never surpassed in any inter-
national exhibition.

The significance of such enterprise
is greater than at first sight appears.
Patterns for the markets are de-
signed man}- months in advance,
therefore textile exhibitors cannot
show their newest goods without risk
of having them copied, and hence
the British textile trades have not
until now shown to their best ad-
vantage at exhibitions. The purpose
of their collective exhibits is, for
this reason, to be distinguished from
that of the exhibits made by many
firms in other trades who may hope
to book orders for what they actually
show. "We may say here that the
altruistic policy has probably been
carried too far. We see the most
dainty costumes in woolens so fine
as to be mistaken for silk, men and

women faultlessly dressed in British-
manufactured materials, yet abso-
lutely no indication is given of the
names of the many manufacturers
who contribute to those exhibits.
This question of inadequate repre-
sentation is the most impressive
feature of the British section. Utter-
ly incomprehensible as it may ap-
pear, we have at this exhibition va-
rious groups, as well as a number of
individual manufacturers, all pre-
sumably sane and competent business
men, who at very considerable ex-
pense and trouble have produced
some of the handsomest shows of
their goods ever seen anywhere, and
yet deliberately cut off all chance of
profiting by it. Huddersfield had a
man on the spot, but the local repre-
sentative is the exception and not the
rule, and the intelligent represen-
tative who combines a knowledge of
his firm's exhibits and the art of
making them known, together with
the necessary linguistic capabilities,
is a rara az'is indeed. In the case
where as many as fifty firms have
combined, a small weekly contribu-
tion would have sent either a couple

PRINCIPAL FACADE, BRUSSELS EXPOSITION

39°

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

of good men for the whole time, or
employees of each firm for a fort-
night each, who would at the same
time have learned much to benefit
themselves and the firms they repre-
sented.

Inquiries have shown that where
adequate representatves are to be
found on the stands many important
orders are being booked. Labels on
most exhibits are either printed in
too small a type or are not trans-
lated, when the people have taken
the trouble to provide any at all, and
in many cases exhibitors have been
content to let the excellence of their
goods speak for themselves without
giving visitors an indication what
they are now and where they are
to be procured. These good folk
will probably blame everybody but
themselves if they find their outlay
unremunerative.

To resume. The collective ex-
hibits of Huddersfield and Bradfield
comprise two dozen admirably ar-
ranged panoramic tableaux, with
backgrounds painted by Mr. Walter
Hann. Here the whole process of
manufacturing woolen goods is
shown, starting from the sheep
tendered by the shepherd and pass-
ing through all processes of manu-
facturing until finally we come to
garden parties, evening receptions,
the House of Commons lobby, etc.,
filled with models wearing the latest
Paris and London fashions. The
machinery in the foreground, and
even the actual tools, baskets, and
the clothes worn by the factory
hands, have been brought over and
used in these illustrations.

Other collective shows include a
most artistic stand by the Fine Cot-
ton Spinners and Doublers' Associa-
tion, an amalgamation of fifty-two
firms, who are represented by a sym-
bolical group of statuary of weavers
and spinners. In the silk trade, five
firms in London and four at Mac-
clesfield are showing together for
each of those centers.

An exhibit arranged by the Board
of Agriculture calls attention by

means of photographs to the para-
mount position of English pedigree
stock.

The home-office exhibit of models
and illustrations from the factory,
mines and explosives department is
especially appropriate, as Belgium is
essentially a mining and manufactur-
ing country. It includes many novel
devices for the safety, health and
rescue of workpeople engaged in
dangerous operations. With regard
to effective display, the home office
has led the way. Their exhibit is
well arranged; each object has labels
in three languages, and there is an
efficient representative. Their models
showing the training of miners, the
researches for the prevention of dust
in factories, etc., gives a thorough
and exhaustive picture of an enor-
mously useful work, and they are
amongst the best that are to be
found in the whole exhibition.

A great variety of the most
highly-finished philosophical, mathe-
matical and scientific instruments un-
surpassed in finish and detail else-
where, will be found amongst those
left to blush unheard by the way-
side.

A small display of motor cars and
chassis has been arranged by the
Society of Motor Manufacturers and
Traders. The exporting collieries of
the northeast coast, the principal col-
liery companies, railways and others,
who can only derive a very indirect
advantage from their outlay, have
most interesting, and in cases very
large, exhibits of models and in-
stallations, which are very attractive
to visitors.

In arranging the contents of the
Industrial Hall it was found pos-
sible to obtain some of the effect of
collective exhibiting by grouping in-
dividual exhibitors. The courts de-
voted to carpets and to modern
tapestry, the attractive suite of
courts illustrating English furniture,
an important group of fifty-one
cases of ceramics, the court of
chemical industries, are well arranged
on this principle.

THE BRUSSELS EXPOSITION

39i

392

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

A similar policy was pursued in
the International Machinery Hall.
The most important groups are ma-
chine tools, agricultural machinery
and cotton and flax spinners. We
are indebted to the Royal Commis-
sion for the use of the three splendid
photographs illustrating these three
groups in the present article, the
scope of which does not permit to

decorated ceilings, the wide folding
doors leading to spacious offices, etc.,
of their Commissioners make the
primitive British arrangement, which
has "temporary shed" written all
over it, look very insignificant indeed.
The architecture of the British
section (by Humphreys, Ltd.) with-
in the Industrial Hall- is in a pure
Corinthian style. The white-fluted

EXHIBIT OF BRITISH COTTON AND FLAX SPINNING MACHINERY IN THE INTERNATIONAL MACHINERY HALL

enter into the description of particu-
lar exhibits.

The British Commission, actuated
by the best of motives, viz., that of
giving their exhibitors as much space
as possible, with retiring modesty
have stowed themselves away in a
humble corner in offices as difficult to
find as they are insignificant in size
and decoration. Other countries have
given more consideration to prestige
in this respect, and the lofty, almost
palatial, chambers, hung with magni-
ficent tapestry, handsomely furnished
with carved old marble and gilt
tables and chairs, resplendent with
tall gilt mirrors, reaching from low
marble consoles to the high, well

columns with Jupiter Stator capitals
are 23 feet 6 inches high ; the arch-
way of the entrance is 38 feet high,
18 feet wide and 15 feet deep;
measured to the top of the blocking
course, its height is 48 feet.

The staircase at the head of the
hall leads to a floor 20 feet higher
than that of the hall itself.

The courts of Canada, France and
Italy may be, in fact are, more rich
in colour and more gay in the style
of the decorations adopted. Yet the
pure white of the British section has
a cool, elegant effect which is both
artistic and pleasant in the highest
degree.

Exhibitors have been relieved of

THE BRUSSELS EXPOSITION

393

394

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

all care with respect to decoration,
which was arranged by the exhibi-
tion's branch on the advice and help
of Mr. Charles Allom and Mr. Frank
Warner, members of the Royal Com-
mission. A uniform design of show-
cases has been adopted throughout.

The International Machinery Hall
further contains a large number of
fine machine tools from the United
States, two complete sets of sugar-
mill plant from Holland and many
large exhibits from France, Italy
and Austria. On most of the British
stands too many machines have been
crowded together, while foreign
firms have been content to show one
large unit in actual working. A
splendid distributing switchboard,
with about two dozen marble panels,
is installed along the whole width of
the hall.

Further electrical and other ma-
chinery will be found on the magni-
ficent Palais du Genie Civil and in a
smaller hall devoted to collected
electric exhibits. France has also a
special engineering section with
notably some up-to-date artillery.
The Belgian, German and other rail-
way exhibits, which are of the
greatest interest, are to be found in
separate halls.

The Belgian Arms Factory also
has a separate building. The im-
portance and variety of the Belgian
section may be gauged by the fact
that they occupy about 60,000 square
metres ; it would take a book to de-
scribe them.

The United States and France
occupy about 50,000 square metres,
and about 30,000 square metres are
divided amongst Italy, Switzerland,
Portugal, Turkey, Japan, Denmark,
China, _ Uruguay, etc. The Italian
court is crowded with statuary and
most gay and joyous in effect. The
French is more delicate in colour and,
upon a cream foundation, well rep-
resents the characteristic features of
French decorative art. Every branch
of industry is well represented. In
the Spanish section we have a repro-
duction of the Court of Lions in the

Alhambra, poor and tawdry if com-
pared with the small, but exquisite,
reproduction erected at the Crystal
Palace at Sydenham.

An idea of the large amount of
material used may be gathered from
the fact that 3,700,000 kg. of iron
and steel, 30,000 square miles of
glass, and 50,000 square metres of
zinc were used in the construction of
one section covering 51,500 square
metres of ground.

The Machinery Hall is really one-
third of a large building, of which
it occupies 30,000 square metres. A
platform raised 12 feet above the
ground runs the whole length and
part of one side of it. By these
means visitors have an uninterrupted
view of the machinery exhibited,
most of which is to be shown in
motion. This gallery is an innova-
tion which will be much appreciated,
as generally visitors on the ground
floor experience great difficulty in
obtaining a satisfactory view.

An annex to the Machinery Hall
is set apart for the generating sta-
tion, in which a 15,000 horse-power
plant supplies most of the motor
power for the whole of the buildings.

The chimney for this station is 60
metres high. It has a ferro-con-
crete basis 6.34 metres high, of
which 4 metres is underground. The
double hexagon of the stack is
formed of concrete blocks, which
were cast on the ground.

A small sub-station near the en-
trance to the grounds, fed by the
town supply, provides the current for
lighting the grounds and buildings.

The foundations of the Railway
Hall were constructed on a 'novel and
rapid system, which combines great
stability with economy, as there are
no excavations and no carting away
of material. The .method, as its
name — compressol — indicates, is based
on compressing- the ground for the
pillar foundations. A movable scaf-
folding consisting of a light iron
frame and a 5-horse-power motor
drives a carrot-shaped iron ram
into the ground. This wedge has a

THE BRUSSELS*. ^EXPOSITION

39S

THE SENEGAL VILLAGE AT THE BRUSSELS EXPOSITION

circumference of 3 metres, 50 on
the top, and runs almost to a point at
the bottom. When a round hole of
sufficient depth has been made by
the repeated impetus of this wedge
(in this case the operations were car-
ried on on filled-in land) about 6
metres 50 concrete is thrown in.
Then eight iron staves with half
hoops at the end are let into the hole ;
a conical wedge with rounded ends
is substituted for the carrot, and the
hole is enlarged to 1 metre 50 cir-
cumference. Finally, about 0.50
metre are cut square to 1 metre 20
(but not excavated) rammed con-
crete is put in, four small, round iron
sockets are let into the concrete, and
the base for the pillar is complete.
Sometimes as many as four of these
bases were completed by one machine
in a ten-hour day.

The whole of the main buildings
and pavilions form an oblong square,
in which various countries have laid
out gardens in their own distinctive
styles. Between two other sets of
gardens on the east side of the
grounds a large space is set apart for
side shows and other attractions.

These are all under an American syn-
dicate, and comprise every motion in
queer movement that has been de-
vised. They include the Senegal Vil-
lage, La Royaume Mervielleux, Cre-
ation, Dip the Dips, Wild West,
Witching Waves, Great Scenic Tree,
Le Tickler, Mountain Slide, Figure
Eight, Miniature Railway, Water
Bumps, La Roue Joyeuse, La Maison
Joyeuse, Rifle Ranges and Oleorama.

Crossing the Avenue de Pesage on
one of the numerous, bridges, which
are of unusually solid construction,
as they have to bear a double track of
tramways — wood and iron or ferro-
concrete being employed in their con-
struction— the Colonial Gardens are
reached. Here are various separate
buildings, such as the Palaces of
Arts, Colonies, Water and Forests, a
dairy, lace manufacture, etc.

To the right of the gardens, facing
the main entrance and along a street
east of the main hall, a number of the
most interesting national and munici-
pal pavilions will be found. The town
of Brussels has constructed a large
house in the Seventeenth Century — so-
called Louis XIV. style — reminiscent

396

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

PAVILION OF THE CITY OF BRUSSELS

of the guild houses surrounding the
famous Grande Place ; in the interior
statistical information as to municipal
engineering is shown. The construc-
tion shows a corner tower, 50 metres
high, surrounded by a figure 6 feet
high ; nine large, beautifully-executed
figures ornament the sides of the
house.

The Antwerp pavilion is an exact
reproduction of the well-known Ru-
bens House.

Ghent reproduces the beautiful
guildhall of the Masons and part of
the Achter-Sikkel.

The salle des fetes of the modern
exhibition design initiated at Paris
contains seating accommodation for
4,000 people. The pavillion of the
Netherlands is an imposing structure
in rich Dutch renaissance.

The United States exhibits are
divided between two sections ; the
largest space is in the Halls of In-
dustry and consists of exhibits of
manufactured articles of merchandise.
The smaller space is in the Machin-
ery Hall, and contains, as alreadv
mentioned, some of the best working
machinery in the exhibition, reflecting
great credit upon the companies par-

ticipating. Principal among these ex-
hibitors are the Brown & Sharpe
Company, Pratt & Whitney, Inger-
soll-Rand Drill Company, American
Pulley Company, Cincinnati Shaping
Company, Cincinnati Milling Machine
Company, Alfred Schutte & Co.,
Schieren Company, Forderer Com-
pany, Miller Du Brul and Peters
Company.

In the Halls of Industry the
United States has taken a section
which has an area of about 22,000
square metres. We find the Ameri-
can typewriter companies very
strongly represented, having such
companies as the Remington, Under-
wood, Smith and Yost typewriter
companies.

The Singer Sewing Machine Com-
pany has taken the largest space of
any firm in the United States section
and have installed a very interesting
and comprehensive display. Other
firms in this section are Yale &
Towhe Mfg. Company, Bissel car-
pet sweepers. Walkover shoes. Fen-
wick Bros.' Graphic Arts Company,
Cheesman Optical Company, Ameri-
can Optical Company, Reece Button-
hole Machine Company, Aluminum

THE BRUSSELS EXPOSITION

397

Goods Manufacturing Company,
Heywood Bros., Wakefield Company,
Dorman Vulcanizing Machinery
Company, and many other representa-
tive lines of American manufacture.
The large entertainment grounds,
where, as previously detailed, me-
chanical motion in all its aspects is
being made to contribute to the
amusement of great crowds, are en-
tirely in hands of Americans.

We may here note the United
States Government decided not to
participate officially in this exhibi-
tion, although an urgent recommen-
dation to do so was made by Presi-
dent Roosevelt, but Congress refused
the desired appropriation. Then the
Brussels authorities appointed Pro-
fessor J. H. Gore, of Washington, .
D. C, as commissioner to arrange ex-
hibitors, in co-operation with Mr.
Paul Grosjean, of Brussels, in the
interests of American exhibitors.

A New York office was opened in
charge of Mr. Otis S. Chessman, to
take up the matter of collective ex-
hibits, Mr. Frank Strauss dealing
with American companies in London.
The United States Government, al-
though not participating, later took

official recognition by appointing Mr.
John Ball Osborne, Chief of the
Bureau of Trade Relations, as
"Honorary Commissioner General,"
and Mr. Hugh Grant Smith, Secre-
tary of American Legation, as Hon-
orary Commissioner.

The exhibition railway branch,
which brought in the goods, landing
in a bottle-neck, much delay was
caused. Germany had its own line
right into the section, and theirs was
the only section which was com-
pletely ready for the opening. The
government of that country not only
erected its own halls, but made itself
further independent by providing its
own central station, equipping it with
exhibitors' plant and supplying- cur-
rent for light and power in the whole
section. At a meeting of German
manufacturers held in Dusseldorf in
1908, it had been decided to abstain
for five years from all participation
in foreign exhibitions, but at the in-
stance of the German Minister for
the Interior this rule has been re-
leased.

The organization, planning the ex-
ecution of this comprehensive scheme,
which was begun three years ago,

ITALIAN PAVILION AT THE BRUSSELS EXPOSITION

398

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

was carried out through the En-
gineering Commission of the German
Government, by the Chief Engineer,
Mr. F. Fritsche, whose thoroughly
successful work at the Dusseldorf
Exhibition in 1902 and 1904, and at
Nuremburg in 1906 has proved him
an expert in exhibition engineering.

Germany is housed in a separate
building, covering over 30,000 square
metres, with an exceedingly heavy
framework carrying several trans-
porter bridges.

The space of the section is divided
into separate halls as follows : General
Industries Hall, 6,500 square metres ;
Principal Machinery, 5,700 square
metres ; Power House, 2,600 square
metres ; Boiler House, 7,500 square
metres; Engineering, 1,800 square
metres ; Agricultural Machinery,
1,800 square metres; Railways, 2,800
square metres ; ; Art and Applied
Arts, 3,000 square metres ; Pavillions
and Cafes, 2,500 square metres. The
principle underlying the German
section, which has been thoroughly
carried out, is to group together each
branch of engineering so that visitors
may find on one spot all machinery
required in one particular industry.

Thus we find in the principal hall
the following groups : Mining iron
work, rolling mills, metal working
machinery, woodworking machinery,
leather working machinery ; printing
and paper textile industry, etc.
Agricultural machinery and refuse
destruction are to be found in an-
other hall and annex, which contains
laundry machinery. Special sectional
catalogues, printed in various lan-
guages, are provided.

The power house contains the
dynamos, engines, pumps, compress-
ors and armatures. They consist of
a 10,000 horse-power steam turbine
direct coupled to a rotary current
generator (Bergmann), a 2,250-
horse-power steam turbine direct
coupled to a rotary generator, and a
small 150 horse-power steam turbine
direct coupled to a continuous cur-
rent generator of the same make. A
T.ooo horse-power locomobile (Lanz)

direct coupled to continuous current
generator (A. E. G.), a 600 horse-
power locomobile (Wolf), with a
transmission belt to a C. C. generator
(Lahmeyer), a (revolving piston),
steam engine, 250 horse-power (In-
ternational Hanover) direct coupled
to a C. C. generator (Poge), and a
30 horse-power suction gas motor used
for starting a C.C. dynamo. Another
group contains a 1,000 horse-power
ship engine (Lenz steering), several
small locomobiles and a gas motor
aggregating 425 horse-power, several
15 horse-power Diesel motors, and a
100 horse-power locomobile, making
a total of 21,000 horsepower. There
is a twin boiler of 500 square metres
heating surface and tubular boiler of
300 square metres, and a cool-
ing tower with a capacity of
500 cubic metres per hour. Besides
centrifugal pumps, electric motor-
driven, there are feed-water and
cooling water pumps. The steam
and other fixing is by the Gesellschaft
fur Hochdruck-Leitungen, Berlin,
who have also fitted the piping for
the International Section. The main
switchboard is of the most modern
construction and equipment. The
cables for the German section were
delivered and laid ready for supply
by the Kabelwerk Rheydt, and we
understand that the same firm has
supplied the whole of the cables for
the rest of the exhibition. A fully
equipped controlling box enables the
engineer by the use of numberless
apparatus, all exhibits, to tell at a
glance the working of each unit in
this section.

The educational sections are full
of the minutest details. Very com-
fortable reading rooms, filled with
the exhibit of publishers of books
and periodicals, are provided for the
use of visitors. About fifty hand-
some rooms, specially designed and
fitted and furnished most luxuriously,
illustrate the building, designing, fur-
nishing and decorating trades. No
tickets are on these exhibits, but a
neatlv framed tablet is placed at the
entrance of each room, giving all

THE BRUSSELS EXPOSITION

399

the particulars and necessary infor-
mation.

Next in importance as a single ex-
hibit comes undoubtedly the pavilion
•of Canada. Rich in colour as far as
decoration is concerned we find here
■collected all that the colony pro-
duces and the amenities to the settler
are indicated by exhibits of game and
fish modeled in life-like resemblance.
A large group of agricultural ma-
chinery manufactured in the Domin-
ion occupies the centre of the hall.
No names are given. Opposite, m a
fine, white Ionic temple, the Grand
Trunk Company gives free cinemata-
graph displays of Canadian scenery.

The French show a number of
"buildings of the style in use in their
colonies across the seas, and an imi-
tation of an Indo-Chinese temple,
which, in its vivid red colouring,
stands out a prominent feature.

In various parts of the grounds
are refreshment houses, built in the
-style of their respective countries,

where national dishes and beverages
are dispensed.

A square, formed of old German
houses, grouped around the interior
of an immense covered hall, makes a
cool retreat during the hotter hours
of the day.

Apart from the "American Amuse-
ment Park" already mentioned, which
represents an immense outlay of cap-
ital, brains and energy, and is wholly
financed by American capital, there
is the Brussels "Kirmess" or Fair,
near the main entrance. It consists
of 1 08 houses in the XV and XVI
style, reproductions of actual build-
ings. The interiors are utilized for
cafes and sideshows.

Large grounds are reserved for
. sports, of which balloon and flying
machine ascents of an international
character will be a main feature.
Amongst the prizes are some of
£2,000 for the three best flights fiom
the Exhibition to Antwerp, around
the cathedral there, and back.

METHODS OF LAYING OUT CITIES

By Charles W. Barnaby

THE enormous aggregation of
masses of the people in great
cities has made it necessary
for the thoughtful engineer to con-
sider the principles which should be
observed, either in laying out the
plan of a proposed city, or the cor-
rection of the defects of such cities
as have become so crowded as to be
in need of revision and partial recon-
struction.

The principles involved in such a
problem are necessarily influenced by
local conditions, but there are certain
features which may be examined as
bearing upon certain places which
have already become critically acute
in their relations to the people who
dwell within their limits.

In the first place, cities, instead
of being built in continuous solid
masses, should be divided into com-
paratively small sections by parks and
parkways, especially for protection
against disastrous conflagrations.
Such an arrangement would also pro-
vide park and transportation facili-
ties, and also furnish ducts for the
entrance of fresh air to the interior
parts of the city.

In the second place, in cities such
as New York, in which there is a
deficiency in avenues of travel in any
given direction, some of these park-
ways should be utilized for subways,
auto tracks, carriage drives, etc.,
without involving grade crossings
for the transverse streets.

In New York, for example, there
are practically no avenues of travel
whatever suitable for automobiles in
the lower, or business part of the
city.

To carry out such plans in cities
already built and crowded would in-

400

volve enormous expenditure, but
some such improvement is rapidly
become an absolute necessity, and the
expense required at the present time
is but a fraction of that demanded
in the course of a few years ; while
if the improvements are made judi-
ciously while there is yet time there
will be a handsome profit accruing to
the citizen who is sufficiently far-
sighted to acquire the property abut-
ting on the line of the obvious im-
provements.

Although the principles of what
follows may be applied in general to
nearly every large city, the author
has taken New York as an example
of what ma)' be accomplished in the
improvement and development of a
great city.

As has been pointed out at various
times, a grave mistake was made
in laying out the plan of New York,
since the streets above Eighth street,
running lengthwise of the island of
Manhattan, were placed too far
apart.

This was doubtless due to the fact
that the founders of the city assumed
that the natural lines of longitudinal
travel would be the two rivers on
either side of the long and narrow
island, and that it was most desirable
that ample opportunity should be
given to reach the water at any point.
The closeness of the cross-streets,
running east and west, is ample dem-
onstration of the fact that the rivers
were considered as offering the best
lines for travel, and if the avenues
running north and south had been
placed as close together as the cross-
streets there would have been about
fortv in number, instead of fifteen,
as at present.

LAYING OUT CITIES

401

These are only single examples of
the defects which would be avoided
if complete cities could be carefully
designed and built by engineers
under rigid specifications. Under
such circumstances city building
would have long since been reduced
to an artistic and utilitarian science,
with its specialized city designing
engineers and a full line of engineer-
ing literature relating to the subject.
As it is now, what is said and writ-
ten on the subject is frequently more
the product of idle thought and con-
jecture than the result of scientific
investigation and practical experience
in the art.

The field of city design is too large
for any one person to master in all
of its details, and the office of the
city designing engineer should in-
clude a corps of experts covering
practically all of the various branches
of art and engineering.

If a complete city ready for the
occupancy of four or five million
people and accompanying business in-
terests could be thus designed and
built under the supervision of such
competent expert and corps, of speci-
alists, particularly if they could have
some latitude in regard to the selec-
tion of a suitable site, the results in
the way of health, comfort and con-
venience, as well as in artistic ap-
pearance of the product should be
gratifying.

The ideal city should be laid out
with carefully selected sites for
public buildings, schools, colleges,
churches, amusement halls, residen-
tial areas, business houses, factories,
interborough transportation lines and
passenger and freight terminals ; also
docks, bridges, ferries and tunnels,
when water courses enter into the
problem ; and along with all the
rest the matter of the distribution
of parks and parkways requires judi-
cious consideration. All of the above
should be located in such relation to
each other and the surroundings as
to provide the people with the safest,
most convenient, and most satisfying
accommodations and, at the same

5-2

time, present a highly pleasing and
artistic appearance.

The large parks should be in the
outskirts and should be left in as
natural a state as practicable with
their native forest trees. Such paths
and lanes as are required, with their
bridges, resting nooks, etc., should be
judiciously treated to conform, as far
as possible, with the natural sur-
roundings. The parks throughout
the body of the city, instead of be-
ing large and few in number, should
be of medium size, plentiful, well
distributed and connected, together
with numerous parkways of liberal
width. This arrangement would give
all parts of the city convenient ac-
cess to the park spaces,, which, be-
ing thus arranged in a continuous sys-
tem, could, when once entered, be
traversed throughout without leaving
it, if desired.

It is an unfortunate fact, however,
that cities, as a rule, are not built to
order, but, like Topsy, just "grow'd,"
without any consideration, or con-
ception, even of the possible or prob-
able future requirements. As a re-
sult, most of the cities depart widely
from the ideal ; the narrow and poorly
arranged streets, scarcityof parks and
parkways and restricted transporta-
tion possibilities all have their detri-
mental effect, while such things as
barriers against destructive conflagra-
tions are conspicuously absent, both
to sight and mind.

The destruction of life and prop-
erty by great fires has been some-
thing appalling, and yet, immediately
after a city has been visited by such
a calamity, it is rebuilt in the same
compact mass in utter disregard of
the forcible demonstration it has just
ffiven of the need of some preventa-
tive measure against a recurrence of
the disaster.

Under certain possible conditions,
the whole of Manhattan Island might
be burned over from the Battery to
1 5 5th street, with a possibility of also
layinf bare sections of the Bronx
and Brooklvn.
. Among the fires entailing a loss of

402

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

$10,000,000, and upward, in less than
two and one-half centuries past may
be mentioned London, 1666, $33,650,-
000; Smyrna, Turkey, 1772, $20,000,-
000 ; Constantinople and suburbs,
from 1729 to 1870, a dozen fires
ranging from $10,000,000 to $25,000,-
000 each; New York, 1835, $17,500,-
000; Hamburg, 1842, $35,000,000;
Charleston, S. C, 1861, $10,000,000;
Portland, Me. 1866, $10,000,000;
Chicago, 1871, $165,000,000; London,
1874, $70,00.000; St. Hyacienthe,
Que., 1876, $15,000,000; St. John,
N. B., 1877, $15,000,000; Kingston,
Jamaica, 1882, $10,000,000; St.
John's, N. F., 1892, $25,000,000;
Guayaquil, Ecuador, 1896, $22,000,-
000; Ottawa, Ont., 1900, $10,000,000;
Baltimore, 1904, $50,000,000; Toron-
to, 1904, $12,000,000; and last, but
by no means least, San Francisco,
1906, $350,000,000, or more, and yet
it has been rebuilt in the same old
way. There have been many other
fires of less extent than the above,
but which have been, nevertheless, of
serious proportions.

Is it not time to give this matter
of conflagrations serious attention
and to take some measures to cope
with this terrible menace to our lives
and property? Terrible as the past
record has been, the conflagrations of
the past are insignificant as compared
with what may, within the range of
possibilities, occur under present con-
ditions in some of our largest cities.

It is a sin bordering on a crime to
continue to construct cities extending
over miles of territory in dense for-
mation, without incorporating effec-
tive means for cutting off the course
of a conflagration after it has es-
caped ordinary bounds and restraint.

Cities should be divided into sec-
tions not exceeding one mile square
by parks and wide parkways ; these
will not only serve as fire barriers,
but will add greatly to the health,
comfort and happiness of the people
and the beauty of the city. This sys-
tem provides a break in the continu-
ity of the building mass, thus making
it practically impossible for a con-

flagration to spread over miles of
territory before checked. It would
be much easier to stop a fire at the
parks and parkways than in a solid
mass of buildings. The cutting down
of trees and shrubbery would be
much easier, safer and more effective
than the destroying of a line of
buildings, and the loss of a mile or two
of the parkway's adornment would
be a trifling- matter in comparison
with the loss which would be caused
by the destruction of an equal area
of buildings.

Another important office of the
proposed park and parkway system
suggested for New York would be
to protect the great bridges. The
space under, and for some 200 feet
each side of the bridge approaches,
should be included in the park space
and should be free of buildings. A
comparatively small conflagration
along that part of the East River
containing the approaches of the
Williamsburg, Manhattan and Brook-
lyn bridges might destroy all three
of these bridges. In such a case the
loss to the people in business, time
and situation would probably be
greatly in excess of the actual money
value of the destroyed bridges. The
large public buildings should be pro-
tected in the same way, and all future
schools, etc., should be located along
the line of the park system.

Although cities cannot be built to
order to definite ideals, much can be
done to improve those that have been
handed down to us. Opportunities
should be watched for to correct
faults already incorporated in their
make-up, and plans formulated and
suitable regulations adopted to im-
prove them along proper lines.

Laws should be passed which will
prevent any further growth of cities
and villages without proper pro-
visions for suitable parks and park-
ways. It should be provided that no
village or city extending one mile or
more in either direction should be
further extended without being separ-
ated from such extension by means
of a parkway of not less than 300

LAYING OUT CITIES

403

SUGGESTED IMPROVEMENTS IN NEW YORK CITY

4°4

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

feet wide ; also that they should not
extend their boundary line up to that
of an adjoining village or city with-
out providing a parkway 300 feet or
more in width along the dividing
line between them.

The various conditions and sur-
roundings of different cities call for
different treatment in each case,
Manhattan, for instance, being long
and quite narrow, does not have the
same necessity for diagonal streets
that a city would that extended un-
broken in all directions. While a
few diagonal streets leading from
important gates of entrance and from
important centers could undoubtedly
be placed to advantage in a newly
designed New York, it is a question
whether the advantage would be
sufficient to justify incurring the ex-
pense that would now be involved on
account of having to destroy much
valuable property to accomplish the
purpose. As for the gates of en-
trance, it is a question whether it
would not be more practicable and
satisfactory to distribute the throngs
outside the confines of Manhattan by
providing the diagonal thoroughfares
on the other side of the rivers, where
there is more room and property is
less expensive. Those coming to or
leaving the city could then pass
through the gate nearest to their
point of destination or location in
Manhattan and would have no neces-
sity to make a diagonal cut across
the city.

An important feature of the gener-
ous application of the parkways
scheme is that in addition to the
value for recreation and protection
against conflagrations, the parkways
form much needed ducts for the in-
gress of fresh air currents into the
body of the city, thus adding greatly
to its health and comfort.

The need of more north and south
avenues of travel on Manhattan is
real and pressing and is becoming
more urgent every day, particularly
since the advent of the automobile.
Automobiles have come to stay. They
have come fast, and they will con-

tinue to come even faster and must
be provided for accordingly. There
is to-day absolutely no suitable ave-
nue of travel for these vehicles in
lower New York, and the uptown
avenues fall far short of the require-
ments in this respect. It should be
so that owners of automobiles in up-
town and outlying districts could
get to and from their places of busi-
ness in lower Manhattan with com-
fort and dispatch. If such proper
facilities for automobiles were avail-
able many would avail themselves of
that course of travel, which would
help greatly to relieve the congestion
on public transportation systems.

. Aside from the demands of the
automobile, there are the rapidly in-
creasing demands of these public
transportation systems, which it is
going to be difficult to meet with the
restricted northward avenues.

Transportation and other problems
related to "The City Beautiful" are
receiving more attention of late than
formerly. Considerable practical
work has already been done or is
under way, various schemes have
been proposed, and some have been
approved for future application, but
any plan which fails to recognize and
provide for this growing need for
additional avenues of travel in a
north and south direction will fall
woefully short of meeting the neces-
sities of the case.

It is rather late in the day to con-
sider a radical remodeling of New
York, but there is a great deal
that must be done and much more
that might be done to greatly im-
prove the city in the way of utility,
health and beauty. The accompany-
ing map is presented as one sugges-
tion for an improved New York.
While the changes indicated would
be too great to be carried to com-
pletion at any early day. if some such
scheme could be decided upon, all
future improvements could be made
with that end in view ; and, with
possible occasional donations and be-
quests from persons interested in the
plan, and the assistance and incentive

LAYING OUT CITIES

405

ABOUT 4-00 FEET

CROSS STREET BRIDfrE

~*09&V-440

CROSS-SECTION OF NORTH *SOUTH PARKWAY,- LOOKING NORTH.

PROPOSED STREET ARRANGEMENT

possibly of a few conflagrations,
which would eliminate the necessity of
purchasing valuable buildings which
are now in the way of the proposed
parks and parkways, the ideal might
in time be closely approximated.

Tremendous as the expense would
be, it is a matter for serious con-
sideration as to whether it is not be-
coming an absolute necessity. If so,
the sooner that fact is recognized
and the plans formulated, the less
the expense will be, as at present the
greater part of the proposed route is
now occupied by old, comparatively
small buildings, which will soon be
replaced in a large part by expensive
modern buildings.

It will be noticed on the map of
New York that two north and south
parkways are provided for, both
leading from Battery Park to the
upper part of the city, one on the
east and one on the west sides. These
parkways being cut through the
blocks between present avenues, ex-
cept in places through the lower part
of the city, add greatly to the facili-
ties for travel in their direction.

The cross-section view of these
north and south parkways gives a
good idea of their value for facilitat-
ing travel and for recreation, fire
protection, etc. The subway system
in the center consists of the usual
two express and two local tracks,
with the addition of two extra out-
side of these for light freight, bag-
gage, packages and mail transporta-
tion. Such a subway goods trans-
portation system would greatly facil-
itate business and relieve the conges-

tion of the regular street traffic by
doing away with many of the de-
livery, express, baggage and mail
wagons. Outside of the subways are
•pipe and electric tunnels, and over the
whole are the automobile tracks.
Outside of these are the carriage
driveway, bridle path and foot paths,
all of which are bridged over at the
cross streets, so that grade crossings
are avoided, and reasonably fast
speed can be made by the autos,
carriages and horsemen without
danger. Along each side are the
park spaces and ordinary roadways
and building frontage.

The cross street bridges might first
be placed at every third or fourth
street, and the intervening bridges
added later as traffic demanded.

This full width scheme could prob-
ably not be carried farther down
town than to Houston or Franklin
street.

The proposed west side subway
goes only as far uptown as Forty-
second street, where it connects with
the present Broadway subway sys-
tem and eventually becomes the
southward extension of that system.
The west side parkway, however, ex-
tends farther uptown, terminating at
Fifty-ninth street. North of this
point street traffic is reasonably well
taken care of already, and can easily
be supplemented by constructing
straight driveways through the west
side of Central Park and extending
Riverside Park and Drive down to
Fifty-ninth street, as indicated on the
plan.

The east side parkway extends

4c6

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

from the Battery to the Harlem
River and its subway system extends
from the bridge connecting subway
at the Queensboro Bridge to the
Harlem River.

By extending the downtown end
of the present subway from Forty-
second street up Madison avenue to
noth street, and there connecting it
with the Lenox avenue line, the
Broadway line already having been
carried south from Times Square,
we now have the Lenox avenue line
and the Broadway line extending in
entirely separate systems all the way
from the Battery to their northern-
most terminals, but connected at the
Battery, Forty-second street and
Ninety-sixth to I ioth street by shuttle
railways.

These two systems, supplemented
by the one along the proposed east
side parkway as described above,
make three separate subway systems
to northward extremity of Manhat-
tan or beyond, and these may, when
necessary, be farther supplemented
by utilizing more of the wide park-
way space for the purpose, and still
farther by placing another system of
subways beneath the first, thus
double-decking the entire system, if
necessary. Under such conditions it
is not probable that the demands will
ever exceed the possibility for ex-
tension provided by the proposed
plan.

The material excavated for the
subways could, as far as available, be
used to fill in the parkway to give a
good general slope from the central
part outward, to fill in the approaches
to the cross street bridges, and to
give the park space a more or less
irregular contour to avoid monotony
of appearance.

There are also indicated on the
map numerous crosstown parkways,
also parkways connecting together
Morningside, St. Nicholas and other
parks in the upper part of Manhat-
tan, and extensions to the Riverside
Park system. Three additional parks
of considerable size are indicated just
below Fortv-first, Twentv-first and

Rivington streets, respectively, to
supply the need of that part of the
city which is now deficient in park
accommodations. A good-sized park
is also indicated at the Harlem,
north of Central Park.

At each crosstown parkway (every
mile) there should be turnouts con-
necting the north and south auto
tracks with the crosstown tracks, and
also with the regular streets. The
auto tracks would, therefore, only be
used for through travel of one mile
or more, and would be left at the
crosstown parkway nearest to the
auto's destination and the ordinary
streets followed for the balance of
the distance.

The three proposed new parks in
the lower part of the city would
probably only be possible of con-
sideration in connection with the
abandonment of a large part of Cen-
tral Park. If there are no legal bars
against this being done, what suffi-
cient reasons, outside of purely senti-
mental ones, are there for not cutting
Central Park into good sized sections
and distributing them about the city
in places where they will be of the
greatest benefit to the most people?
A park one-fourth to one-third the
size of Central Park is larger than
the average citizen would care to
stroll over, and with the driveways
and auto tracks provided by the uni-
versal park and parkway system,
those who frequent the park on
wheels would seem to have no good
reason to complain, and good driving
would be within convenient reach of
all parts of the city.

If parts of Central Park were to
be abandoned, it would be best done
by maintaining the present outer lines
by retaining a strip along each side
and each end some 500 feet in width
for parkways (this would protect the
interests of owners of property now
fronting- on the park) and retaining
the middle portion of the park, where
the reservoirs are situated, intact, dis-
posing of large rectangular sections
of the park at each end. If the
reservoirs are to remain the area

LAYING OUT CITIES

407

taken up by them should be reclaimed
for park purposes by covering them
completely by means of a system of
concrete arches. This reclaimed area
would be available for tennis courts
and playgrounds, leaving the area
now used for those purposes free for
other use. The value of ground in
the Central Park section is sufficient
to warrant reclaiming the reservoir
area.

If the abandonment of the reser-
voirs is contemplated, it would be
preferable to divert the central part
of the park to public building or
residence use and retain a large sec-
tion at each end for permanent park
purposes rather than to follow the
plan described in the preceding para-
graph.

While it may possibly be too late
to carry out the herein proposed
scheme in full in Manhattan, the
same is not the case with respect to
Staten Island, parts of Long Island
and parts of the Bronx. The build-
ing areas on Staten Island are so
small that they would offer but little
obstruction to the course of parkways
and suitable parks. The Bronx is

already fairly well provided with
parks and parkways, and the requisite
additions could easily be made.

Appalling as the expense of the
proposed parks and parkways may
appear on first thought, a little con-
sideration reveals the fact that the
increase in the value of property
along the parkways would be im-
mense, and if the city could condemn
a strip of ground extending some
100 feet wide on each side of each
parkway, these strips could be dis-
posed of at such an advance that the
expense of the parkways would be
more than paid. The result would
be a much more healthy, beautiful
and efficient city at a financial profit.

The scheme is one which might
well attract the attention of one or
more multi-millionaires who are look-
ing for an opportunity to leave a
suitable monument, or who desire to
invest wealth for the benefit of pres-
ent and future generations. The
benefits to humanity might be ex-
pected to exceed anything likely to
result from any of the proposed
"Foundations," both in extent and
duration.

. SiMi *-

GEARING FOR MACHINE TOOLS

AN ANALYSIS OF THE ALL-GEAR DRIVE

By Thomas R. Shaw

THE all-gear drive for machine
tools has come to stay in spite
of criticisms to the contrary,
and we see evidences of its increasing
popularity. It has been suggested that
this drive is a change in fashion, and
that shortly as fashion changes again
we shall revert back to the cone pulley
drive. But if this reaction is to take
place, then electric driving will also
become obsolete, because it is unques-
tionably due to the more extended
use of electric driving in engineering
workshops that the all-gear drive has
become a necessity. Then the use of
high-speed tool steel added a further
impetus to its invention. When the
cutting tools were perfected to such
an extent that they could stand high-
speeds, and the heat generated by
these speeds, the old-style cone drives
were found lacking in power. The
cutting of metal at high rates of
speed had called for a new design,
increasing the power anywhere from
two to ten times, hence the need for
the gear drive and the single belt.
This did not by any means eliminate
the cone pulley, because of the fact
that there is a great deal of work
of a light character where the cone
pulley could be used to most advant-
age.

Every type of machine tool seems
to go through a process of evolution
and just now it is the question of
the all-gear drive that occupies the
attention of most makers and pros-
pective buyers. There is a subtle
fascination attached to these drives
which attracts all who have to take
any share in them from the designer
to the salesman, for to the latter they
undoubtedly make good "talking
points." Especially does this apply

408

when it can be pointed out that the
changing of speeds is the essence of
simplicity ; that there is no chance
of putting two speeds in at one and
the same time, thereby causing a
smash-up ; that only a small number
of handles are requisite to obtain all
the changes ; that a minimum number
of wheels are required to obtain a
maximum number of changes ; that
a minimum number of wheels are
running idle ; that the whole is neatly
encased, and that the whole is what
is commonly termed "fool proof."

These certainly are all good points
on which to argue and impress the
buyer, but it is that feature of con-
stant power transmitted which is of
vital importance and makes the all-
gear drive stand out pre-eminently
above the old cone drive. And what
is the old cone drive? Usually a
5-speed cone with a narrow belt. The
cone drive was made originally to
give a variety of speeds, therefore a
long length of cone pulley was re-
quired. Necessarily, the width of
belt was cut down, because to make a
cone pulley with a belt of sufficient
width to give great power would not
only make it difficult to shift the belt
from one step to another, but would
increase the length of the headstock
to undue proportions. This always
limited the amount of power that
could be obtained through the belt.
Because of the small diameter of the
bottom step of the cone, there was
much slipping of the belt on the first
and fifth steps. Often the range of
spindle speeds was not graded and
there would be overlapping of speeds.
There would be a big gap between
the speeds when with open belt and
with back gear. The first back gear

MACHINE GEARING

409

speed would be too slow and the last
open belt speed too fast, and the
work consequently done on the slow
speed, and this before the days of
high speed steel was always tolerated.
Of all machine tools none, perhaps,
at the advent of high-speed steel, was
so ill-adapted to meet the demands
to be made upon it as the lathe, be-
cause of the fundamental weakness
of the cone pulley, which has the belt
running at its slowest speed and de-
livering least power when most power
is required. The difficulties to be
met are at their maximum in lathe
drives because of the wide range of
speeds required. The problem has

OLD-STYLE PULLEY DRIVE

been attacked in many ways. One
line of development has been in the
increase of the widths of belts with
the reduction of the number of steps
of the cone and the enlargement of
the small step of the cone in order
to cut down the reduction of belt
speed when the belt is shifted on to
the large step. This change was also
inaugurated with the intention of
limiting the range of diameters of
work to be done in a single lathe.
Later on the speed range was in-
creased by the addition of double
back gears, and this construction un-
questionably meets many of the re-
quirements. The use of a mechanical
belt-shifter simplifies the moving of
the belt on the cones. Then followed
the single pulley drive, with the belt

WIDE CONE WITH SMALL BACK GEAR RATIO

running at a constant speed, the
changes to the spindle speed being
accomplished by the movements and
combinations of gearing.

In looking over the various gear
drives that have been produced dur-
ing the past few years, one is natur-
ally surprised at the variety of the
mechanisms employed. As a matter
of fact, all the advantages that could
be possibly obtained with an all-gear
head could be obtained better with a

CONE ON SIDE SHAFT. WITH THIS DRIVE THE CONE

MAY BE INCREASED IN DIMENSIONS AND

ALWAYS RUN AT A HIGH SPEED

variable-speed motor and compara-
tively few mechanical changes. This
was owing to the fact that the elec-
trical changes could be obtained with
a much smaller friction loss ; that the
change increments were much closer ;
that the speed could always be ob-
tained while the machine was in

4io

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

ONE OF THE LATEST ALL-GEAR HEAD LATHES AS MADE BY MESSRS. DEAN, SMITH & GRACE, LTD., KEIGHLEY

motion, not necessarily stopping for
changing and doing away with all
overhead work. In other words, the
variable-speed motor drive was the
ideal geared head machine. As these
seemed to be so successful, it is diffi-
cult to explain the re-action that has
set in in favour of constant-speed
motors. True, these latter have con-
stant maximum efficiency, whereas
variable-speed motors sacrifice some
of their average efficiency to their
speed range ; but where constant-
speed motors are used, speed varia-
tion must be obtained mechanically,
and gears and other transmissions
providing variable speeds are sources
of some loss in efficiency that may or
may not equal the loss in variable-
speed motors. Constant-speed motors
cost somewhat less than variable-

AN EXCELLENT EXAMPLE OF CONE DRIVE. TWELVE
SPEEDS OBTAINABLE

speed motors, but the principal saving
in installation expense is in the sim-
pler controlling apparatus for the
constant-speed motor.

Whatever may be the cause, it is
evident that the head with a number
of mechanical changes is very popu-
lar. If installed as a belt-driven ma-
chine, it reduces to a minimum the
alterations necessary if at any time
the machine is to be converted to
motor driving. Since gears must be
used anyhow, it is perfectly feasible
to gear down from the driving shaft
to the spindle for even the fastest
spindle speed. In addition to the
quickness with which the changes can
be made is the obvious advantage
that the belt always runs at full
speed, consequently at whatever speed
the spindle is running, the full power
is available at the cutting surface.
As only one belt is required, it is
practicable to use a much wider belt
than is possible with a cone pulley,
and the maximum belt effort can be
used and more power delivered
through a relatively large diameter
pulley running at a high speed. This
naturally much increases the average
output of the machine. As belt shift-
ing is done away with, the life of the
belt is prolonged, and the drive is
more widely adaptable than when a

MACHINE GEARING

411

ALL-GEAR HEAD LATHE, 10-INCH CENTRES, DRIVEN BY ALTERNATING-CURRENT MOTOR MOUNTED ON
HEADSTOCK. MESSRS. JOHN STIRK St SONS, LTD., HALIFAX

cone pulley is used. Often another
advantage is the placing of the driv-
ing pulley in a more convenient loca-
tion than is possible when it is di-
rectly mounted on the spindle

Ease of control unquestionably re-
sults in the rapid and economical pro-
duction of work. Where the work
varies considerably in diameter, fre-
quent changes of speed will be re-
quired, and where the most efficient
cutting speed can be obtained by
simply moving a conveniently located
handle, the work will be turned out
at a maximum speed. If frequent
shifting of belts is required, a great
deal of the work will be clone at less
than maximum speed owing to the
extra exertion involved. The decision
as to correct cutting speeds for a
given material and given rates of
speed and their relation to one an-
other is no longer a matter of ex-
periment or an individual's opinion,

but more nearly an exact science, so
that shop managers now know what
results should be realized from the
tools in use. Given this knowledge,
it becomes highly desirable that ma-
chine tools be equipped with suffi-
cient range of speeds and with small
increments of variation to allow very
closely approximating the most ad-
vantageous speed for the work in
hand. Too much emphasis cannot be
laid on the question of small incre-
ments of variation, which conse-
quently means a low ratio between
highest and lowest spindle speeds, and
in this the designees of all-gear heads
appear to be unanimous.

It is very evident that the number
of speeds usually obtained with a
cone pulley drive, viz., ten, and some-
times twelve, is not enough for econ-
omy. There should never be less
than sixteen, for there is always that
intermediate diameter to be turned at

412

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

UNIVERSAL MILLING MACHINE WITH ALL-GEAR DRIVE AND ALL-GEAR FEED. CINCINNATI MILLING
MACHINE COMPANY, CINCINNATI

Note that similar arrangements are used both for drive and feed. Each of the mechanisms is

made as an independent unit.

the wrong speed, and therefore at
the greatest cost, so that the more
changes of speeds we have the bet-
ter is our ability to work profitably.

A very simple illustration can be
used to show the loss due to incor-
rect speed. Say we have a shaft of
any diameter and material is such
that 50 ft. per minute is the correct
cutting speed. The nearest speeds
obtainable in the lathe in which the
shaft is to be turned give 40 ft. and
60 ft. The latter being too high, the
work has to be done at 40 ft., in
which case we have only 40-50 of the
speed we should have 4-5, or a
loss in time of machining of 20 per
cent.

According to Mr. F. W. Taylor

an increase of only 1 ft. per minute
above the correct cutting speed is
sufficient to make a high-speed steel
tool a success or a failure. Thus we
see the value of small increments of
speed.

In all cases where machine tools
are motor driven, it is desirable to
mount the motor on some part of
the machine if possible rather than
on the floor near the machine. Here
the all-gear head shows to advantage,
because in many of the designs the
cover is so arranged as to receive a
motor at any time. A machine tool
so driven becomes an independent,
self-contained unit, which can be
moved as a whole and located wher-
ever desired. One of the mechanical

MACHINE GEARING

413

PLAN OF LATHE WITH ALL-GEAR HEAD ARRANGED TO TAKE EITHER PULLEYS OR ELECTRIC
MOTOR. MESSRS. THOS. RYDER & SONS, BOLTON

414

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FOUR-FOOT BORING AND TURNING MILL WITH GEAR-BOX DRIVE. MESSRS. JOHN STIRK &
SONS, LTD., HALIFAX

The gear box is an independent unit and may be driven by pulleys, as shown, or by an electric motor.

difficulties encountered in attaching
individual motors to small machines
was the unwieldy size of some of the
earlier motors of small capacity.
Sometimes the motor would be as
large or larger than the machine, and
this feature was largely responsible
for the prevalence of group driving
of small machines, even where the
individual drive would have been pre-
ferred. Recent improvements in
motor design have led to a great re-
duction in the size of motors for a
given capacity, so that the 20 horse-
power motor of to-day is not nearly
so large as the 10 horse-power motor
of earlier years. It is, therefore,
much easier now to make the motor
an integral part of the machine.

Although it is so convenient to
mount a motor above the all-gear
headstock of a lathe, yet the best loca-
tion for a motor on a lathe and on

most machine tools, is as low down
on the machine as possible. The
amplitude of the vibrations set up
will be smaller the closer the motor is
to the floor, and the liability of chat-
tering will therefore be reduced.
The location of the motor in the
cabinet leg or in the headstock of a
lathe is ideal, but there are, of course,
many cases where the motor must be
mounted over the headstock because
no other place is available. The
necessity of having the motor out of
the way of the work is obvious, as
dirt and cuttings, if allowed to get
into the motor, would at once give
rise, to electrical troubles, especially
in direct current machines. So that
on the whole, mounting the motor
above the head seems to be the best
way, and a clear floor space is then
left for sweeping.

All-srear heads mav be divided into

MACHINE GEARING

415

VERTICAL MILLING MACHINE, SHOWING THE APPLICATION OF THE GEAR-BOX UNIT SYSTEM.
CINCINNATI MILLING MACHINE COMPANY, CINCINNATI

four general types ; those with slid-
ing keys, sliding gears, clutched
gears, or some combination. The
sliding key type has certain advan-
tages ; it is economical in space, and
the speed may be quickly changed
while the machine is in motion. But
it is liable to get out of order, and
all-gears in the train revolve, some
of diem idly, it is true, but it is the
idle wheel, not the loaded one, that

makes the most noise, and while this
type may be used very appropriately
for a feed motion, it is not suitable
for a main drive.

There are many examples in use of
friction clutches of both positive and
friction types. In turret lathes the
latter type is a necessity, because it
is necessary to instantly obtain fast
and slow rates of spindle speed, ac-
cording as different- tools are pre-

4i6

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

END VIEW OF LATHE, SHOWING APPLICATION OF ELECTRIC DRIVING, WITH CHAIN GEAR. MESSRS.
DEAN, SMITH & GRACE, LTD., KEIGHLEY

sented to the work. For reliability,
simplicity and number of changes ob-
tainable, however, there is nothing to
equal the sliding-gear type — either
with plain sliding gears or with tum-
bler cone gearing of the Hendey-
Norton type.

The combination type is endless in
its variety. One of the latest fea-
tures is the use of the "silent pawl"
or free wheel, which has much to
commend it, and has found favor
with several makers. The ratchet
wheel is attached to the slowest run-
ning gear of any particular cone of
gears, and so long as the driving
shaft is running, and the other gears
in the cone are disengaged, the pawl
and ratchet wheel rotate together
with the driving shaft, but when any

one of the faster speeds of the cone
is in use, the ratchet wheel, which is
keyed to the driven shaft, simply
runs ahead of the slower rotating
gear carrying the pawl. The pawl
is generally provided with a small
projecting piece, acting as a bell-
crank lever. A spring carried on
the ratchet wheel, and clipping it so
that it can slip when necessary, abuts
against this bell-crank lever, and
when the ratchet wheel rotates faster
than the pawl the spring forces the
pawl out of engagement and there is
no objectional clicking. When the
speed of the ratchet wheel drops be-
low that of the pawl the spring
again comes into play and forces the
pawl into contact with the ratchet
teeth.

MACHINE GEARING

417

A. SLIDING KEY HEADSTOCK GEARING

In diagram A is shown the de-
veloped plan of a headstock gearing,
in which sliding keys are used. It
will be observed that there are two
sets of gears ; three speeds being
given to the second motion shaft,
and then these multiplied by four
give twelve changes to the spindle.
A feature to be noted is the driving
of the faceplate direct from the last
motion shaft. In diagram B we have
a combination of a sliding key with
clutches, and in which we see the ef-
fect of combination, for, whereas in
case A, 16 gears are required to give
12 speeds; in case B, 21 gears give 24
changes, and as we consider further
examples, the effects and possibilities
of combinations will show even bet-
ter results. Here a claw clutch is
used to give the first two changes.
This motion is then transmitted
through a pair of gears to a sleeve
running loosely on the spindle, this
sleeve taking the place of the cone

pulley in an old-style drive. On this
sleeve are keyed four gears, meshing
with corresponding gears on a back
shaft; these latter run freely on the
shale, but each may be connected
and drive the shaft through the
means of a spring key. Thus the
back shaft has eight changes of
speed. Thence the spindle is driven
through any one of the three pairs
of gears at the right hand, each gear
on the spindle being provided with
a claw clutch, to engage with a slid-
ing clutch, keyed to the spindle.

B. COMBINATION OF SLIDING KEY AND CLUTCHES

5-3

Gear Buns. Batio of Gearing.
G A D C 1*2 to 1

GAB 37 tol

GAEF 9-8 tol

GABCDEF ?5-5 tol

C. CLUTCH SYSTEM

Thus twenty-four changes are given
to the spindle, and all speeds pass
through one of the last three pairs of
gears. It will be observed that a
very high speed is required by the
driving pulleys, thereby giving an ef-
ficient belt speed, and that the posi-
tion of the pulleys could be occupied
by a motor which could run at the
same speed.

In case C we have a clutch ar-
rangement, with only a small number
of changes. The pinion G is con-
stantly running, gears A, B, C and F
all run freely, and gears D and E
are keyed to the shaft. The clutches
are all keyed, clutch H being keyed
to an extension of the hub of gear C.
Gears C, D, E and F form a double-
gear combination. Four changes are
given.

Friction clutches are used in case
D, an independent clutch being used

4i8

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

in each of the gears, A, B, C, D, E,
and F. Two operating levers are
used to engage the clutches. A head-
stock of this type is the only one in
which changes can be made instant-
aneously, but friction clutches are
often vetoed on account of the trou-

D. FRICTION-CLUTCH SYSTEM

ble occasioned by slipping. An ex-
panding ring clutch, which automati-
cally tightens itself, is used in one of
these heads. The lever, which spreads
open the ring to grip the revolving
part, is operated by a cam, which is
moved endwise under it, and so
formed that the lever is cause to ride
further up the cam in the event

Whd
ir

= When]

-PAWL AND RATCHET SYSTEM

of any slip taking place. In an-
other case of a well-known turret-
lathe, a combined friction and posi-
tive clutch is used, the friction taking
hold first and starting the changing
without shock, and then the positive
clutch coming into action immediately
afterwards. Some such devices are

F. PAWL AND RATCHET SYSTEM

necessary to make a friction geared
lead satisfactory.

In cases E F and G we have ex-
amples of the use of the silent pawl
and ratchet wheel. The first of these
looks rather formidable, when we
see there are twenty gears in mesh,
and all these are running. Only
nine speeds are given to the spindle
through the double - wheel keyed
thereon, but these are in either di-
rection, so there is an equivalent of
eighteen speeds. Actually only twelve
gears are required to give the
changes, the other gears in the train
being used for reduction of speed
and reverse. The same gear reduced
to simpler elements is in case F.
These are arranged in a box, and
only two centers are used. The first

321

J II

«.

—

■=.

-— —

r«

-1 -

a. RATCHET AND CLUTCH SYSTEM

MACHINE GEARING

419

<u—[y

H. CLUTCH AND RATCHET SYSTEM

-CLUTCH AND RATCHET SYSTEM

nest of three gears is keyed to a
socket and drives a corresponding
nest of gears running loosely on a
shaft. A clutch connects either of
the two quicker running gears, and
a ratchet wheel the slow motion. A
similar set of gears is on the right-
hand side and transmits the motion
through a shaft in line with the pul-
ley shaft. Nine changes are given
and only two operating handles are
necessary. Twelve gears are re-
quired, but case G shows a unique
arrangement, whereby the nine
changes of speed can be obtained
by the use of nine gears and the same
number of clutches and silent ratchet

wheels. Cases H and / show how,
with twelve gears at their disposal,
different designers get eight and
twelve speeds respectively.

We now leave the clutch examples
and turn our attention to those in
which the changes are made by slid-
ing gears. Shapers, among other
tools, have also come to be driven
by the all-gear drive, and a good
example is given in the photograph
on page 420, while a section through
the body of the machine and gear
box is given in case K. In the gear
box itself there are four changes,
eight gears being required, and in
the body there are two more sets of

K. GEARING OF QUEEN CITY SHAPING MACHINE

420

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

PILLAR SHAPING MACHINE WITH ALL-GEAR DRIVE. QUEEN CITY SHAPER COMPANY, CINCINNATI

gears, giving altogether eight changes
of speed. It will be seen that every
pair of gears has an out-of-gear po-
sition, and only the gears actually
required are in mesh. This is a most
valuable feature, and is one in which
the sliding-gear system predominates.
All the previous examples, with
clutches and sliding keys, have
all the gears in mesh continually,
and in such cases power is being
wastefully consumed, and useless
wear of the gearing is taking place,
which, except in very few cases, is
poorly compensated for by the
quickness in making changes.

Of two machine tools the one that
requires the least amount of power
to drive its own mechanism in doing
certain work is the better for at least
two reasons, the cost of power in the
machine is less and the wear is less.

It has the advantage both going and
coming. In looking over machine
tools purposing to buy, it is some-
times advisable to consider their re-
lative merits as consumers of power,
and then figure out what that con-
sumption really means. The day will
come when such analysis will be com-
mon. Such analysis will tend to es-
tablish efficiency ratings for machine
tools. And why shouldn't a machine
tool have an efficiency rating as much
as a boiler, or engine, or dynamo?

Cases L and M each give diagrams
of sliding-gear combinations to give
sixteen speeds, and in each case there
are only three pairs of gears in mesh
at any one time. Case N is a very
interesting combination, with thirteen
wheels eighteen changes are obtained.
It is also unusual, because the double
gear occurs at the first motion. The

MACHINE GEARING

421

first motion pinion is attached to the
pulley and runs loose on the shaft.
It is provided with a clutch, through
which the motion of the pulley may
be transmitted to the shaft direct, the
gear with the corresponding clutch
being moved to engage it ; or the
drive may be transmitted through the
double gear to the shaft. Then, on
the driving shaft and on the spindle
there are two sliding cones of gears,
three in each, which may be brought
to mesh with three fixed wheels on
the intermediate shaft. Comparison
of this last set with case G shows a
similar arrangement of gears, but, in
the case under discussion, the changes

M. SLIDING-GEAR COMBINATION

L. SLIDING-GEAR COMBINATION

are made by sliding the gears instead

of with clutches.

ingenious combination o f

clutches, attached to sliding gears, is
given in case 0. Two shafts carry
the gearing. On the main spindle
are six gears, with the belt pulley in
an unusual place, viz., in the center.
The front gear slides on a key sunk
in the spindle. That immediately be-
hind has a fixed position longitudi-
nally, but runs free on the spindle
when not clutched to the adjacent
sliding gears. The remainder of the
spindle is surrounded by a sleeve, on
which are mounted, first, a sliding
gear, then the driving pulley with a
long boss, on which is keved a slid-

ing pinion. Next, another free gear,
and then a sliding gear keyed on the
end of the sleeve. Also, on the right-
hand end of the sleeve there is a
sliding pinion. The two free gears
have clutch teeth on both sides. The
back gears form part of two sleeves
running on a fixed shaft, with a
distance piece between them opposite
the main pulley. The various gear
combinations made by sliding and
clutching are effected by four levers.
There is an out-of-gear position for
each gear, so that two combinations
cannot be in together. As shown in
the diagram, the motion is transmit-
ted through the gears 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7 and 8.

For simplicity of arrangement there
is very little to equal the tumbler
gear principle, with which, in com-
bination with sliding gears, it is pos-
sible to obtain the greatest number of
speed changes with the lowest num-

N. SLIDING-GEAR COMBINATION

422

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

^^P^p

/
/
/
/
/

O. CLUTCH AND SLIDING-GEAR COMBINATION

ber of gears. As may be expected,
the arrangement of these are as varied
as there are designers. In some in-
stances but a single gear is carried in
the tumbler frame, while in others,
as case P and Q, the cone of gears
is carried in the tumbler frame. In
cases R and 6" we see how the num-
ber of speeds increases very rapidly,

in R there being twenty speeds with
fifteen gears. There are five gears
in the cone, and it will be easily seen
that by the addition of one more
gear in the cone there would be
twenty-four speeds. Seventeen gears
give twenty-four speeds in case S,

P. TUMBLER GEAR SYSTEM

Q. TUMBLER GEAR SYSTEM

MACHINE GEARING

423

AN EXCEEDINGLY NEAT GEAR-BOX ARRANGEMENT, WITH TUMBLER GEARS. ONE SIDE DRIVES THE SPINDLE
OF THE MACHINE AND THE OTHER SIDE THE FEED. BROWN & SHARPE MFG. CO., PROVIDENCE

and this should be compared with
case B, where the same number of
changes are obtained, but with a
marked difference in the number of
gears in mesh at one time.

An exceedingly neat arrangement
of gear box is used on one of the
Brown & Sharpe machines, and il-
lustrated by the photograph on page
423. It is of the tumbler cone gear

INSIDE VIEW OF BROWN & SHARPE GEAR CASE

424

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

R. TUMBLER GEAR SYSTEM

type, and contains two distinct sets
of gears — one for the speeds and
one for the feeds. Both motions are
driven from one constant speed pul-
ley at the end, and the speed of
either set can be changed without
affecting the other. The driving pin-
ion is of sufficient length to cover the
cone of gears, and the sliding tum-
bler pinion always remains in mesh
with it. To lift the tumbler bracket into
position a handle is placed on the
outside, one being at each end of the
driving shaft. The tumbler pinion is
carried on a shaft, along which it is
slided by means of a knob at the
front. There is also a train of "back

S. CONE GEAR SYSTEM

gears," by means of which the num-
ber of speeds is doubled. These are
attached to a sleeve on the upper
shaft. This sleeve has annular
grooves turned in it which form a
circular rack, and a pinion engages
with this, provided with a handle at
the front, so that by giving a half-
turn to this either of the gears on
the sleeve may be brought into mesh
with the cone. Ten speeds are given.
The Cincinnati Milling Machine

T. THE CINCINNATI MILLING MACHINE GEAR DRIVE

MACHINE GEARING

425

OUTSIDE OF GEAR CASE OF CINCINNATI MILLING MACHINE, SHOWING OPERATING LEVERS AND SPEED CHART

Company's all-gea/ drive is a well to the frame, and relieves the driv-

thought-out mechanism of the tum-
bler gear type, and is illustrated by
example T and several photographs,
which give a very good idea of the
mechanism. The driving pulley is
mounted on the bracket A attached

ing shaft of all bending strains due
to the belt pull. A friction clutch is
carried by the pulley and transmits
the motion to the driving shaft B.
This friction clutch is of special con-
struction and serves in a dual ca-

INTERIOR OF GEAR CASE OF CINCINNATI MILLING MACHINE, SHOWING OPERATING LEVERS AND

TUMBLER FRAME

Note the worm for moving and locking the tumbler frame

426

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

parity. One-half, operated by the
toggle levers, effects the main drive
— the other half, consisting of the
two outer surfaces, Q and R, form
an auxiliary drive, which is imparted
from the pulley to the shaft by mov-
ing the actuating rod running
through the center of the shaft to
bring the faces of Q and R into
frictional engagement. The actuat-
ing mechanism is so arranged that
this auxiliary drive may be operated
by the foot, the lever for which is
seen in the general view, and the
drive depends on the pressure ex-
erted. This leaves the operator with
both hands free to move the various
handles to effect the combinations of
gearing, and allows the gearing to
be slowly turned around until the
teeth of mating wheels come opposite.
Power is transmitted through the
tumbler gears C C, which may be
brought into mesh with any one of
the cone gears D, thence through the
sliding gear E, the long sleeve G, and
the backgears H I J K. This pro-
vides for four different speeds, and
if the sliding gear F is brought into
mesh with one of the cone gears, a
different series of four speeds is ob-
tained. Again, if the back-gears are
slid out of engagement, and the
clutch teeth L are engaged, transmis-
sion is direct through any one of
the four cone gears or the sliding
gears, thus giving two additional
series of four speeds each, making a
total of sixteen different spindle
speeds, the eight fastest of which are
obtained with only two pairs of gears
in mesh. The eight slowest requiring
four pairs of gears in mesh. The
gear marked M is practically an
elongation of gear H, and is used
to facilitate engaging the gears.
Assuming that the clutch is in
engagement, and the operator wishes
to use the back-gears, the move-
ment of the operating lever first
disengages the clutch, and then, as
pinion / is not yet in mesh with gear
K, it would not revolve. The clutch
being out of engagement, gear K is
also idle, and it might therefore hap-

pen that the teeth of / would not
come opposite the spaces in gear Kf
in which case it would be impossible
to bring these two gears into en-
gagement, but the use of gear M
prevents such a possibility. It enters
into engagement with / before the
clutch is entirely disengaged, and
thus / and / are kept constantly in
rotation.

The tumbler frame M, which car-
ries the gears C C, is positively
locked in position in a very ingenious
manner. It is trunnioned on the
driving shaft and at one end is pro-
vided with a worm wheel segment O,
which meshes with a worm on the
end of the pilot wheel shaft. Turn-
ing the pilot wheel to the left causes
the tumbler frame to revolve and the
gears lifted clear of the cone gears.
The entire tumbler mechanism may
then be moved laterally to the de-
sired position, where it is properly
located by a detent pin. Then, by
turning the pilot wheel to the right,
the tumbler gears are brought into
mesh with the proper cone gear, the
depth of their meshing being deter-
mined by a stop pin, against which a
lug on the tumbler frame abuts. Ad-
ditional pressure on the pilot wheel
then serves to act through the worm,
forming a combination of screw and
levers which locks the tumbler in
position. The main driving shaft has
clearance through the tumbler and is
not subjected to any strain, the
weight of the tumbler being sup-
ported by the slide.

One other feature of all-gear
drives not touched upon is the con-
venience of making many of these as
separate units, as the examples in the
Brown & Sharpe and Cincinnati ma-
chines, or as independent gear boxes,
which can be attached to any style
of machine, such as the one on the
Stirk boring and turning mill. This
is a noteworthy practice in modern
machine tool design, and has the
great advantage that, independent of
creating a standard design, itself of
sufficient importance, it enables parts
to be made in quantities.

THE MECHANISM OF RIVER BEDS

By V. Lokhtine

Several years ago there was presented to the International Technical Bureau at St. Petersburg a
paper upon the important subject of the nature and formation of the beds of rivers, considered as a
mechanical problem, and. taking into account the large forces acting to produce the result from an
engineering viewpoint. _ The importance of this paper is such that a translation of it into English
has been deemed advisable, and we believe that Mr. Lokhtine's analysis will be accepted as in-
dicating the lines along which further investigations may well be conducted in this important
department of engineering work. — The Editor.

UNTIL recently the study of the
behaviour of rivers was lim-
ited to some attempts to dis-
cover the causes to which the ef-
fects were due by the means of
mathematical analysis, owing to the
lack of sufficient experimental data.
Such analysis has been devoted prin-
cipally to the investigation of the
relations between the various ele-
ments of the bed of the stream with
reference to the cross section.

Notwithstanding the diversity of
these investigations and the high de-
gree of perfection of the mathe-
matical portion of such analysis, per-
mitting us to penetrate boldly into
the domain of imaginary relations, we
have not been able by this method to
find the solution of the broad, actual
problem of the regime of rivers and
the question of the movement of the
water, so that the subject of the
formation of their beds yet remains
an open matter. We are therefore
obliged to turn to the method of
actual observation, and to endeavor
to find out just how the flow of
water in a stream really acts.

Although the field of observation
of the behaviour of rivers includes
many very detailed reports, we seek
in vain among these for any general
description of the physical properties
of a river, explaining the causes of
the present condition of its entire bed,
considered apart from any limited
portion of its course. The same is
true as regards the reciprocal action
of the bed and the water, as well as

the differences which appear in this
respect under the influence of various
local conditions.

The literature of hydrotechnics in-
cludes many researches into particu-
lar cases of the action of river cur-
rents. These refer to the behaviour
of whirlpools to the helicoidal action
of the water, etc., to the relation
which exist between the depth of the
water and the nature of the bed ; to
the computation of the flow in terms
of the slope, and of the elements of
the cross section, etc., etc. We seek
in vain, however, for a discussion of
the general behaviour of a stream, in-
cluding such problems as : Why has
a certain portion of a river a deep
and permanent bed while another
similar portion is always filled with
deposits? Why, again, do certain
portions show a continual disposition
to peculiarities which prove that such
features are not accidental but
belong inherently to the bed itself?
It is evident that elementary explana-
tions of these questions are not suffi-
cient, since it is well known, for ex-
ample, that sand-bars prevent the
destruction of the banks of a stream
in many cases, and that a proper pro-
tection of the banks often prevents
the formation of the bars. The de-
mands of navigation have long re-
quired radical modifications in the
normal regime of rivers, seeking to
obtain a greater depth of water by
modifying the natural bed of the
stream and by changing the longi-
tudinal profile. If, however, we make

427

428

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

such radical changes in the natural
regime of a stream, we should keep
clearly in view the elements which
have produced the original channel
and consider whether the alterations
we make may not be followed by
disastrous results. Doubtless many
others besides ourselves have con-
sidered these questions without find-
ing them answered, in spite of the
number and diversity of hydraulic
experiments.

Having sought in vain, and finding
no solution given to the problem,
we have attempted to solve it by our
own efforts with this end in view,
we have made numerous observations
in connection with various works
under execution and collated with
these such material as we have gath-
ered. The theory here presented is
the result of these observations.
Subsequent observations will indicate
the extent to which the ideas here
given are justified. Even if these
conclusions are not found to agree
wholly with all the phenomena in-
volved in the complicated mechanism
of a watercourse, our work will not
be in vain, since it will introduce
some method into the numerous ob-
servations made upon the subject.
Until now such investigations have
been made without any broad plan of
scope and constitute an aimless grop-
ing for results. The programme for
such observations has been made so
wide and so general, for fear of los-
ing sight of some special point, that
the data which are really necessary
have been buried beneath a mass of
useless material, from which they can
often be extracted only after immense
labour and exertion.

Every river considered, not in any
limited portion of its course, but as
a whole, is the resultant of three
factors which are absolutely inde-
pendent of each other :

i. Its volume of flow, which is a
result of the conditions of the climate
and the soil of the region through
which it passes, and of the manner
in which the rain falls upon the basin
containing- its affluents.

2. The slope, which depends upon
the elevation of the region traversed
by the river, and

3. The greater or lesser degree of
destructibility, and hence resistance
of the bed of the river, dependent
upon the nature of substance form-
ing the bed.

These three factors determine com-
pletely the character of the river and
give it all the peculiar properties
which distinguish it from other
rivers, producing the hydraulic phe-
nomena which are observable at any
section of its course, such as the
momentary level of the surface of the
water, the volume which passes the
section, the slope of the surface, the
local and mean velocities, the wetted
perimeter, the quantity of material
transported, etc. All these phe-
nomena are only the local results of
the three factors already defined.

We shall not undertake a detailed
study of the importance and part
played by each of these three factors
which determine the natural regime
of a river, since this would involve
too much detail without affecting the
result and only complicating the mat-
ter. Neither shall we examine criti-
cally the first of the three factors
indicated, that of the flow dependent
upon climatological and geological
features of the river basin. These
phenomena are undoubtedly ex-
tremely interesting in themselves, in-
cluding, for example, what may be
termed the geographical features of
the flow in the affluents and the main
stream, giving the flood conditions
the nature of a wave descending the
river ; the greater or less rapidity
with which the flood wave is propa-
gated, depending upon the state of
the banks, and on other conditions ;
the convexity of head of the wave, a
resultant of its accelerating velocity,
having the effect of throwing all
floating material from the middle of
the stream to the banks, and vice
versa, the concavity of the rear of
the wave drawing into the middle
all material which follows ; the
changes which the form of the wave

THE MECHANISM OF RIVER BEDS

429

undergoes in its movement toward
the mouth, etc. Nevertheless these
phenomena have only an indirect in-
fluence upon the condition of the bed,
being only causes of the oscillations
in the level of the water, which them-
selves exercise a direct influence
upon the bed.

So far as the other two factors are
concerned in the determination of the
natural regime of a stream, the slope
and the resistance of the bed, we
shall not pass in review all their de-
tails nor the special features of their
action upon the bed, but will examine
only those points which determine the
general characteristics of the river.

Regarding the quantity of water
discharged by a river, its flow at any
instant is but one element in the
entire problem of the distribution of
the supply of its entire basin ; the
slope of the stream at the point under
consideration, which itself varies ac-
cording to local conditions, forms only
one detail in the distribution of the
whole fall throughout the entire
length of the stream.

In descending through a given fall.
according to the slope of the valley,
the moving mass of water performs
the work of trituration and entrain-
ment of the material which has got
into the bed of the river ; and at the
same time the water has to overcome
the various obstacles which it meets in
its course. When a narrow passage
is encountered the water accumulates
before it, and re-establishes the gen-
eral equilibrium of flow by increasing
the slope at this particular point above
that which preceded it.

When a wide channel is reached
the level is lowered, and the conse-
quent reduction in slope at such a point
acts to increase the slope of the por-
tion immediately above, so that the
rapidity of flow above is increased and
that below is diminished. When the
stream enters a locality where an in-
undation prevails a certain portion of
the water is left behind until the flood
ceases and the level begins to be
lowered.

In all these cases, which include the

various forms of wetted perimeter of
the river bed, the longitudinal slopes
of the river are determined in such
a manner that the force of gravity
acting upon each particle of the mass,
of water produces an equilibrium be-
tween the water arriving from above
and that discharged below ; the depth
and velocity of the current at each
point becoming that necessary to es-
tablish the general equilibrium in-
volved in the discharge of the water
from the region drained by the stream.

But all the conditions of equilibrium
which establishes the flow will be de-
ranged as soon as the volume of flow
changes and the level of the stream
rises or falls.

Let us imagine for a moment that
the bed of the stream should become-
dry, and then suppose that a constant
quantity of water should be delivered
in a unit of time. During the first
elevation of level the water coming
down from above would be checked
until it had filled the first cavity in the
bed ; after which it would pass on to
the next, filling the second hole, and'
so on. In a word, as we continued to-
supply the stream with the same
quantity of water per unit of time, its
bed would gradually become filled and
the slope at every point would change
until the moment of equilibrium ar-
rived— that is, until in each section
the quantity of water coming from
above equaled that passing out below,,
thus equalling that delivered per unit
of time above.

Having determined the level of the
surface of the river under these condi-
tions, we have the longitudinal profile,
corresponding to the given volume of
flow. This profile will have the fol-
lowing property : it will be reproduced
every time the river is supplied with
the same quantity of water, provided
no changes have occurred in the bed„
this latter condition affecting the en-
tire profile.

Let us now imagine that the river
receives an additional supply of
water ; we shall have, after the bed has
been further filled, a new longitudinal
profile, corresponding to the new vol-

43°

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

TABLE I.— MAXIMUM HIGH-WATER LEVELS ON THE VOLGA-
Distance from
Rybinsk — Miles Point of Observation Date

0 Rybinsk March 26

33 Romanovo-Borisoglebsk

56 Yaroslawl March 28

93 Khartcheven

106 Kostroma April 4

142 Pies April 4

172 Kinechma April 4

212 Yourievetz April 4

239 Poutchege April 8

268 Gorodetz April 10

301 Nijni April 10

320 Zimyanskaia April 10

350 Issady April 11

400 Vassil April 12

464 Tcheboksary April 13

494 Novaia-Derevnia April 15

546 Verkhni-Ouslon April 15

594 Bogorodskoie April 18

626 Tetiouchi April 19

680 Simbirsk April 21

787 Morkvachi April 24

826 Samara April 24

1,015 Volsk April 27

1,095 Saratow April 27

1,240 Kamychine April 30

1,350 Tzaritzyn April 30

1,477 Tchornv-Yar May 4

1,560 Enotaevsk May 6

1,653 Astrakhan May 10

-SPRING OF 1888
Height Above
Low Water — Feet
37.87

34.23

36.89
35.63
32.76
27.72
27.23
30.94
41.02
44.52
48.65
44.66
42.42
45.50
41.86
43.05
43.40
43.96

43.75

42.98
41.30
38.78
28.98
31.64
22.75
11.97

Time of flow, but this profile will not
be parallel to the preceding one, be-
cause the water encounters new condi-
tions in the bed, demanding a new dis-
tribution of slopes to produce equili-
brium between the influx and dis-
charge. Thus, in passing from one
volume of discharge to another we
find each time new forms of current in
the stream, characterized by profiles
which are not parallel to each other,
and each indicating the various ob-
stacles encountered by the water in its
movement, for the several volumes of
water discharged.

These circumstances furnish what
may be termed the point of departure
for all reasoning concerning the level
-of water in a river, or for its depth
at any given point in one state or an-
other. In order to give form to this
idea let us take an example : Suppose
that for a certain increase in the flow
of a stream we have a rise in level at
a determinate point, this rise will dif-
fer altogether from that which oc-
curs at some other point for the same
increase in flow, and this relation will
be confirmed by the evidence of ob-
servation made upon the variations in
level made upon the same river. Take,
for example, the heights of floods
upon the river Volga, at different
parts of the stream. In Table I are

given the levels of the highest spring
floods which had occurred for a period
of twenty years (this being in 1888),
from which we see that the high level
varied between 27.2 feet (at Pout-
chege) and 45.5 feet (at Novaia
Derevnia), there being thus a dif-
ference of more than 18.3 feet be-
tween the two levels. If it is at-
tempted to attribute this difference,
not to the variation in the wetted peri-
meter, but to the increase in the vol-
ume of water due to the supply from
affluents, we may call attention to the
point that, under such a supposition,
the height of the flood level should be
the greatest in the lower portion of
the stream, while, as a matter of fact,
the variations are apparently inde-
pendent of location, being sometimes
more and sometimes less ; besides, in
the case cited there are no consider-
able effluents between the points
named, and hence no material increase
in the volume of water.

In any case, these differences are
none the less significant even in small
portions of a stream, as, for example,
along the length of certain shal-
lows, as we shall see hereafter, these
phenomena have an especial im-
portance, while there is no question
of possible variations in flow. With-
out anticipating too much, it will suf-

THE MECHANISM OF RIVER BEDS

43 1

<Xi

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43 2

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

fice to cite the profile of the shallows
of the Volga, known as the "Teli-
atchy Brod." In the high water of
1881, the increase of level immediately
above the shallows was 40.81 feet,
while just below the shallows the in-
crease in level was 46.76 feet, this
difference of 5.95 feet being really
due to the eddy caused by the con-
traction of the main channel below.

While considering the importance of
the absence of parallelism between the
longitudinal profiles of a river cor-
responding to different volumes of
flow, we may make a brief digression
and call attention to a consequence of
this circumstance : that is, we cannot
deduce from a profile obtained by di-
rect measurements, the profile corre-
sponding to a new state of the same
stream, by the mere addition or sub-
traction of the same correction for the
entire length of the stream, this cor-
rection consisting of the differences
in level at a given point for the two
states under consideration. Without
citing other examples, suppose that
we had recorded the profile of depths
at the time of the great flood of 1881,
and, in order to obtain the profile at
low water we had subtracted 46.76
feet from all the depths, this being
the rise above low water measured
on the scale just below the shallows.
As the difference in level just above
the shallow was only 40.81 feet, the
line drawn parallel to the high water
level at a distance of 46.76 feet below
would have been 5.95 feet below the
true low water level, and would leave
the higher points entirely uncovered.
This example, leading as it does to
an absurdity, shows plainly that to
pass from one state of a river to an-
other, it is necessary to make direct
measurements of the differences in
level at each point, or in other words
the longitudinal profile of the stream
must be directly determined for each
corresponding state.

Here arises the question : how may
we determine the profile correspond-
ing to a given volume of flow, since,
with the continual changes of level
there exists almost no state of uniform

velocity over a distance of moderate
length ? We may observe, however,
that it is unnecessary to consider this
matter, because the desired level may
be determined for a number of points
by making the observations along the
river, keeping, so to speak, abreast
with the water, and noting the effect of
the conditions upon the profile ; thus,
for example, observing the moments
of low water, the crest of a flood wave,
the interval between two floods, etc.

In any case, whatever may be the
means by which the profiles of the
river have been determined for dif-
ferent volumes of discharge, they rep-
resent, considered as a whole, accord-
ing to the conditions already cited, the
influence of the relief of the riverbed
upon the distribution of the slopes, be-
tween the limits of extreme low water,
and maximum high water. Further,
the reciprocal action of the total fall
of the river and the distribution of
slopes along its length do not limit
the influence which this action exer-
cises upon the level of the surface of
the water ; it is always subordinated
to the conditions of equilibrium de-
pending upon the state of the bed at
each point.

Having a series of longitudinal pro-
files corresponding to several volumes
of discharge, we will perceive the vari-
ations in the slopes at each point in
correlation with the oscillations of the
level of the water ; and we shall also
find the location where the slopes
increase with the increase in the vol-
ume of water as well as the points
where under the same conditions the
slopes diminish.

The preponderating role in the
formation of the bed is played by the
high waters, because : 1 , their velocity
is, for the same slope, two or more
times greater than the velocities at low
water, not taking into account the
diminution of frictional resistances ;
and, 2, because it is during the period
of high water that the great bulk of
solid material is carried into the bed
of the stream, this material being car-
ried in suspension and transported by
the velocity of the current, and dis-

THE MECHANISM OF RIVER BEDS

433

tributed along the bed of the river ac-
cording to local conditions. For this
reason the increase in the slope of any
portion of a river during high water
indicates clearly that no solid matter
is being deposited, and that conse-
quently this portion will have a fairly
deep bed. Conversely, at the localities
where the surface slope diminishes
with high water and reaches a mini-
mum with the highest floods, there
will occur deposits of the suspended
material because of the diminished
velocity of the current, causing the
formation of sand-bars and shallows.

We shall not go into the details of
the circumstances which cause the
increase or decrease of the slope with
the increase in volume of discharge
and produce deep or shallow portions
of the bed.

These circumstances vary so much
that only a detailed study of each
particular locality can enable them to
be determined. As we do not desire
to enter into these details, we shall
cite only a few of the conditions
which are more frequently encoun-
tered in the majority of rivers, and
which produce the more general phe-
nomena.

It is well known that in the curves
and bends of rivers the bed is almost
always regular and deep, and that
the shallows are situated on the
straighter portions which precede
them. This fact, almost a constant
phenomenon, has attracted the atten-
tion of many hydraulic engineers for
a long time. Among them we may
mention in the first place the French
engineers M. M. Fargue and Dubois,
who have attempted to discover by
analysis the relation existing between
the course of a river and its depth.
They have sought the explanation of
the phenomenon wholly upon the con-
ditions of continuous flow of low
water, notably in the fact that the
water tends toward the concave side
of a curve, producing a transverse
slope upon the surface of the water
and a cross undercurrent from the
concave to the convex bank. Al-
though this fact is evident, and its

5-4

influence upon the depth is beyond
doubt, it does not furnish an ex-
planation of the formation of the
shallows in the straight portions
above the curves ; neither does it ex-
plain why the bed becomes deeper,
not only at the curve itself, but also
below, when, after a curve more or
less pronounced, the river continues
to flow, as most frequently at the
foot of a mountain, in a direction
absolutely straight.

We cannot assume any transverse
slope or transverse undercurrent in
this latter case. The cause of the
facts does not reside in the action of
the current at low water, which itself
is determined by the form of the bed
producing more powerful factors,
which change but little, but rather
in the action of the current at high
water, which, being sufficiently power-
ful to cause modifications in the bed,
act to aid the longitudinal modifica-
tions of the profile of the surface of
the water.

Each bend or curve, presenting an
obstacle to the movement of the
water in a direct line, produces an
eddy, causing an increase in the slope
below and a diminution in that above
along the course of the river. Dur-
ing periods of low water, when there
is ample room in the bed of the
stream for the water flowing, the
above cited circumstances can have
only a secondary influence upon the
distribution of the slopes.

This is not so, however, when with
an increase of volume the quantity of
water becomes sufficient to be limited
by the banks of the stream, and it is
under such conditions that the in-
fluence of eddies becomes very ap-
preciable, causing the varied distri-
bution of slopes which may readily
be observed upon the longitudinal
profiles of rivers.

As an example we give the plan
of the shallows of Kosten, followed
by an abrupt bend, on the River
Volga, near Poutchege. As shown
in the longitudinal profile, this bend
produces a considerable diminution in
the level of the river above, con-

434

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

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THE SHALLOWS OF THE VOLGA AT KOSTEN

sidered with respect to other con-
tractions, and in consequence the
slope during high water is greater in
the portion below, causing a consider-
able depth as well as permanence of
the bed in this part, although it has
not a convex form in plan, but
rather a concave shape, so that there
can be no question of the influence
of centrifugal force. The existence
of a higher slope during the period
of high water below bends and
curves, a consequence of the mechan-
ical conditions of the current, ap-
pears to have the character of a gen-
eral phenomenon, as may be proved
by the examination of the longitud-
inal profile of any river. We may
take as a second example the Ga-
ronne, which, together with the
Rhone, formed the principal subject
of the investigations of the engin-
eers Fargue and Dubois. We have
the advantage here of the very com-
plete profile covering different heights
of water for the portion 56 versts

below Lot, published in the Annates
des Ponts et Chaussces in 1848, edited
by the predecessor of M. Fargue, the
engineer M. Baumgarten.

We have taken from this profile
all the portions corresponding to the
curves, and have given in Table II.
the corresponding slopes for high and
low water. We have for the average
of the portion considered :

Low Water

Slope per

Kilometre,

Metres

Average slope for the

entire portion 0.2652

Slope on the curves.... 0.1075
Slope on the straight

portions 0.4000

We see by the above that during
low water, when the character of the
bed has no influence, the slopes on
the curves average about one-fourth
those on the straight portions ; on the
contrary, during high water, by rea-
son of the eddies formed above the
curves, they become very consider-
able, increasing to about three times
what they were at low water, and

High Water
Slope per
Kilometre,
Metres

0.2652
0.3440

0.2610

THE MECHANISM OF RIVER BEDS

435

TABLE II.— SLOPES ON THE CURVED PORTIONS OF THE RIVER GARONNE BELOW

THE MOUTH OF THE RIVER LOT

According to the Experiments of M. Baumgarten. Ann. d. Ponts et Chaussees, 1848.

.No.

Limits of curves
between stations

From km. to km.

1 55.0 55.5

2 56.5 57.5

3 59.5 60.5

4 61.0 61.6

5 63.0 64.0

6 65.0 65.5

7 68.5 69.5

8 70.5 72.0

9 74.5 75.5

10 77.0 78.0

11 79.5 81.0

12 83.0 83.5

13 84.0 85.5

14 86.3 86.9

15 87.5 92.0

16 94.0 95,0

17 97.0 100.0

18 102.0 103.0

19 104.0 104.5

20 105.0 106.5

21 107.5 108.5

Totals 25.2

Average slope per km. of curve

Total fall on the remaining 27.4 km. of straight portions.
Average slope per km. of straight portions

Fall on the curve

r all on thecurve

when the water is

when the water

Fall for a

0 92 metre above

is 9.32 metres

water level

the zero datum at

above the zero

of 7.92

Tonnlens,

datum at

metres

Met -es

Ton liens.
Me. res

0.08

0.20

— 0.03

0.37

0.07

0.77

0.14

0.00

0.04

0.63

0.06

0.24

0.05

* — 0.02

0.37

0.07

1.01

— 0.01

0.21

0.16

*0.13

0.15

0.22

0.44

0.03

0.14

0.15

0.27

0.06

0.10

0.59

1.34

0.19

0.34

0.53

0.74

0.14

0.30

0.07

*0.00

0.07

0.02

0.52

0.07

* — 0.03

0.42

2.78

7.80

0.1075

0.3070

70. 344

10.93

7.15

0.4000

0.2610

Note. — The minus sign indicates a reverse slope.

* On four of the observations the slopes became very low, or even reverse at high water. To verify
these exceptions, figures have been added in the last column corresponding to a flood height of 7.92
metres, when we find much higher figures, consequently these four cases do not form exceptions to the
general rule that the slopes on curves increase with high water.

t This figure has been obtained by replacing the four doubtful observations of the flood of 9.32 meters
by those obtained from the flood of 7.92 metres.

becoming almost one-half greater
than on the straight parts. With the
increase in the volume of flow the
slope changes its place, so to speak,
passing from the straight parts to
the curves ; and since it is during the
periods of high water that the prin-
cipal changes in the bed occur, this
fact explains the general phenomenon
that the curves, quiet at low water
and rapid at high water, have deep
bfeds, while the straight portions
which precede them are filled up
with deposits because of the reduc-
tion in velocity during high water,
and present during low water irreg-
ularities and rapid slopes.

We mav observe the same facts
in the longitudinal profile of the
Dniester. The portion of this river
for a length of 132 miles below
Mohilev has an average slope of
0.000189; ^ we deduct from this
length the lengths of all the curved
portions and compute the sum of the

corresponding slopes, we find that for
periods of low water the average
slope is 0.000134, while for the
straight portions it is 0.000252. Thus
we see that on the Dniester, at low
water, the slopes on the curves are
small, being less than the average
slope, while the straight portions
show the opposite condition. These
relations, however, are wholly changed
when we examine the state of af-
fairs at high water. On the curves,
where during low water the slope
is only 0.000134, and where under
such conditions there is a quiet cur-
rent, the slope rises to 0.000255 at
high water, causing an increase in
velocity, creating in turn a deep and
permanent channel. At the sarrjr-
time, in the straight portions, which
during low .water have a large slope
and more rapid current, the slopes
at high water are not more than
0.000174. producing such a retarda-
tidn in the current that deposits of

436

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

sediment are formed in the river bed.

The same effect is produced on the
Volga at Saratov.

Another factor which is quite gen-
eral among the local conditions and
which acts also upon the distribution
of slopes along the longitudinal pro-
files of rivers, is the influence of
affluents.

Everyone has observed the effect
of the material discnarged by tor-
rents, particularly in mountainous
surroundings. A small rivulet, hardly
more than a thread of water, trick-
ling along a bed otherwise dry, be-
comes an impetuous torrent after
each rain, and especially after
each storm, carrying into the river
quantities of sand, gravel and often
even stones. These form cones of
refuse, projecting into the bed of
the river, these deposits being so well
known as to have special names in
different localities. After each suc-
cessive storm the cone becomes
larger, and when during low water
the river is unable to move the mass,
the current is forced toward the op-
posite bank, which becomes under-
mined and destroyed by the fall of
the upper portions into the stream.
When a stream is thus diverted and
one bank is attacked, the other shore
does not receive the deposits during
low water and does not advance
towards the side which is being de-
stroyed, but remains in its original
condition. In consequence the high
water, spreading over the portion of
the bed which has been increased by
the destruction of the bank, acquires
a diminution of slope. With every
storm the cone pushes out further and
further, and the current at low water
is driven over to the opposite side, in-
creasing the width of the main bed
and reducing the velocity at high
water, causing additional deposits
of sediment. After a certain time the
main bed becomes so wide that the
mass of water loses its cohesion and
no longer has a uniform velocity; it
finds portions of the bed where it flows
with a higher velocity, while at inter-
vals the speed becomes materially

diminished, these intervals then receiv-
ing the later deposits, and filling up,
sometimes with surprising rapidity.
Finally, these portions, limited by the
banks and currents during high water
periods, fill the portions of the bed
which are unused at high water, and
become islands.

These facts agree with the evidence
furnished by the non-coincidence of
the channels produced by the currents
during high and low water, due to the
action of the affluent, which is regu-
lated solely by the influence of the
river, its slope, aided by the change in
the longitudinal profile.

In order that these effects should be
produced, however, forming an ir-
regular bed instead of a regular one,
it is not necessary that the affluent
should be a torrent, nor that its de-
posits should be of a rocky nature.
Even if it is a tranquil stream, it will
nevertheless bring down a certain
amount of suspended matter to its
mouth. A portion of this will be car-
ried on by the main stream, but the
remainder will be deposited and cause
the current to be pushed over to the
opposite bank, effecting its destruction
and recession in a manner similar to
that already described.

The existence of islands at the
mouths of affluents is a phenomenon
very generally observed in rivers, in-
dicating the action of causes at these
points tending to produce a diminution
of slope at high water, and a conse-
quent deposit of suspended matter.

As a third factor among the local in-
fluences upon the longitudinal profile
of a river, we may cite the lack of
homogeneity in the soil at different
portions of the bed. Leaving out of
consideration those portions in which
the banks are formed of bare rock,
and considering only the general case,
we may say that whatever the resist-
ance of the banks, they will be at-
tacked by the river, even when the
stream is in a certain measure repelled,
or the current or the ice is forced
against them, as, for example in
curves.

Although this recession of the bank

THE MECHANISM OF RIVER BEDS

437

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

is accompanied with a simultaneous
displacement of the currents at high
and low water, the new portion of the
main bed which is not necessary to
carry off the high water becomes filled
up, not by the formation of islands, as
described above, but by the normal in-
crease of the abandoned bank, an in-
crease which is effected simultaneously
with the recession by the aid of the
deposits which occur even at low
water. The abandoned bank thus ad-
vances towards the stream as the op-
posite bank recedes, in such a manner
as to maintain at all times the regular-
ity of the bed and the same distribu-
tion of slope on the longitudinal pro-
file. This will not be the result if the
front of the bank forms a compact
mass, consisting of clay, pudding-
stone, etc. The movement of the
stream against the bank attacks the up-
per layers more easily, and while these
are destroyed, the lower and harder
portions will resist, thus preventing the
channel at low water from following
that occupied at high water in the new
and enlarged bed. This will prevent
the formation of deposits on the op-
posite bank, because the channel at low
water will be maintained there ; thus
the main bed becomes enlarged on one
side without being diminished on the
other. When, with the fall in the
level from periods of high water, the
velocity of the current is reduced in
the wide bed, the formation of de-
posits will result in the production of
bars, followed by the same effect as
appears with natural or artificial dams,
checking the destructive action of the
river.

Whatever may be the causes which
produce different slopes at low and at
high water, and whatever may be their
variety, each local slope, changing with
the oscillations in level, forms but one
element in the equilibrium profile of
a river. The local slopes produce cer-
tain effects upon the bed in their
several localities, according as they are
increased or diminished with the rise
or fall of the water level. As we have
already said, it is the high water which
dominates the formation of the bed

of a stream and gives it its form, both
because of the kinetic energy of the
mass of water and because of its in-
creased velocity. If, in descending the
course of a stream, the high water en-
countered everywhere the same condi-
tions, the effects would be distributed
in a uniform manner, and the bed
would have a uniform slope, as we
shall see in the case of a stream
traversing a uniform soil.

Leaving aside this special case, we
may affirm that in each river, among
the factors which control the distribu-
tion of its longitudinal slopes, there is
an intimate dependence upon the na-
ture of the bed or valley through
which the stream runs, and this can-
not be materially eliminated or modi-
fied in any manner. For example, it
is impossible to change the general
plan of the river, altering the curves
in direction or the variations in its
beds when it passes among high moun-
tains or when it is confined between
rocky banks. Doubtless certain parts
of the banks are more readily attacked
than others, permitting their destruc-
tion or enlargement, and under such
conditions it is impracticable to con-
sider uniform slopes at high water
along the entire length of the bed.
The inevitable consequence is the sub-
division of the river into portions hav-
ing slopes either great or less than the
average, and having determinate beds
and depths in the portions where the
current is rapid at high water, and
formation of sediment at the point
where, owing to the diminution of
slope, the energy of the high water is
diminished and the solid materials are
deposited.

Apart from the consideration of
the subject of longitudinal slopes,
it is necessary, if we desire to pene-
trate still further the causes of this
phenomenon, to apply the third of the
factors cited at the commencement of
the present paper as governing the
natural condition of a river, namely,
the properties of the material of the
bed from the point of view of its re-
sistance to destruction, and to the
formation of material to be carried

THE MECHANISM OF RIVER BEDS

439

along by the stream and deposited
elsewhere in its bed.

Every river, whatever its course,
and whatever the regions which it
traverses, is the route by which the
water falling upon the surface of its
basin reaches the sea, and it is also the
means for the transport of the solid
material which descends with the
water.

According to the most remote his-
torical records, rivers have at all
times possessed the same general na-
ture as they have to-day; in all cases
the dimensions of their beds have been
no less than they now are, and their
banks and their beds, speaking of
them in their entirety, and not of
isolated portions, have not been de-
stroyed or self-destroying, hence they
cannot have been the origin of the
material which has descended with
the water, the accumulations of
which have attained such considerable
dimensions at the estuaries.

The suspended matter has not been
supplied by the river from the destruc-
tion of its banks or removed from its
bed, according to the generally con-
ceived opinion. It reaches the river to-
gether with the water from the entire
surface of the basin, and its quantity
does not depend upon the nature of the
bed ; it is an inevitable arrival, and its
properties and constitution arrive with
it, while the river itself acts to tritur-
ate it by the friction of the particles,
so that the mass determines the char-
acter of the stream.

The total fall of a river determines
the value of its slopes as well as its
velocity and the destructive character
of the current. The properties of the
valley, the bottom, and the banks of a
river appose, on the one part, a certain
resistance to the destructive action of
the current ; and this resistance retains
the mass of moving water within the
limits of its bed. These two natural
elements, the steepness of the slope
and the resistance of the bed, are
wholly independent of each other, and

(To be co

notwithstanding the diversity of their
mutual reactions, they always maintain
their equilibrium with each other ; this
is the reason why rivers remain at the
present time in the same general lo-
cations in which they have been in the
past. We may therefore examine how
this equilibrium has been established
under such contradictory circum-
stances, such, for example, as in the
case of a river having a steep slope
and a bed of low resistance, or in the
case of a stream with a small slope and
a very resistant bed.

When a river has a resistant bed
and a small slope, its comparatively
slow current is unable to displace the
material which is deposited upon its
bottom, except in such portions where,
by reason of some local cause, the
high-water slope is relatively consider-
able, as on curves and in contracted
portions. In places where the velocity
of the current is accelerated at high
water, the deposits, or at least the
finer portions, are carried down the
stream during the high-water period,
but upon their arrival at the places
where the slope is smaller the sus-
pended matter is again deposited, the
coarser matter coming down first and
finer portions afterwards.

At each high-water period the
masses of deposited matter are dis-
placed in this manner, and hence, after
a certain number of successions of
high or low water, there will be
formed a deep channel along the
steeper slope, and an obstruction in
the bed produced by the accumulation
of the larger particles in the portions
where the slopes are smaller.

Every obstruction of this kind, how-
ever, has its limits, because each new
layer of deposit corresponds to a
further increase in the low-water level,
and consequently in the destructive
energy of the current, which thus
finally become sufficiently strong to
carry away, in the interval between
two floods, the material which has
been deposited in this shallow.
ncluded.)

MODERN COTTON-MILL EFFICIENCY

SAFETY APPLIANCES IN CARDING, DRAWING, AND ROVING MACHINERY

By H. M. Crawford

THE cardroom of an up-to-date
cotton mill is a striking com-
bination of mechanical ener-
gies. It bristles with wheels and
willing workers in never-ceasing ac-
tivity; and were it not for the occur-
rence of unfortunate accidents in this
department the thousands of opera-
tives employed might, as a rule, be
envied their occupation.

A modern cardroom, preparing
yarn for a mill of 80,000 mule-spin-
dles, contains approximately the fol-
lowing machinery:

Eighty revolving flat carding en-
gines, with 50-inch cylinders.

Eight drawing frames, each hav-
ing three heads of seven deliveries.

Eight slubbing frames of ninety
spindles.

Sixteen intermediate frames of 136
spindles.

Forty roving frames of 180 spin-
dles.

We may thus count on at least 150
complete machines preparing the cot-
ton for the final process of spinning

on mules or ring-frames.

Slubbing,

intermediate and roving frames are
generally known as "speed frames" or
"speeds" ; and these in the mill under
consideration will contain some 10,-
000 spindles, each operating a bobbin
on which the yarn is spun and wound.

The treatment of cotton in a card-
room is interesting and may be briefly
described.

When raw cotton reaches the fac-
tory it appears in close-packed bales
averaging in weight 672 pounds.
With bale-breaking machines and cot-
ton openers its fibres are loosened and
made to occupy greater bulk. The
material is well beaten in the scutcher,
and treated to powerful fan currents

440

for the purpose of eliminating dust,
knots and tree-fibre. It then appears
as a rolled cylindrical "lap." (Fig. I.)
This "lap" is the first form in which
cotton enters the cardroom; and its
first machine is the carding engine.
These machines are arranged in two
or three parallel lines (Fig. 2), ex-
tending the entire length of the room.
The lap is fitted into receiving-slots
at the back of the machine, and is un-
rolled by means of a traveling apron.

FIG. 1. LAP OF COTTON READY FOR CARDING

This passes under the feed roller and
leads to a cylinder — the "licker-in"
— covered with saw teeth to the tune
of several hundreds. The licker-in,
otherwise known as the "taker-in,"
impinges the fibres, casting from the
cotton numberless "neps," or knots,
and short fibres, which would be de-
trimental to the finished yarn. The
cotton is then passed to the main cyl-
inder of the machine ; this is made of
cast iron, is about 40 inches wide and
45 to 50 inches in diameter. It is
covered with card-fillet, i. e., a nar-
row strip of cloth in which points of
steel wire have been pierced by special
card-making machinery. On a single

COTTON-MILL EFFICIENCY

441

FIG. 2.-

-LINE OF CARDING ENGINES IN A MODERN COTTON MILL

cylinder the total length of the fillet
approximates to 260 feet, which occu-
pies 8 days, of 10 hours, in the mak-
ing, and contains upwards of 1,000,-
000 wire points.

The fillet is wound upon the cyl-
inder at a tension of from 230 to 260
pounds, so that, when completed, the
whole cylinder appears as a solid en-
tity covered with steel points. These
take the cotton fibres from the licker-
in, tear them asunder, and act as one
vast comb laying the fibres in a par-
allel direction.

Another cylinder — the "doffer" —
follows the main cylinder. It is 20
to 24 inches in diameter, is also cov-
ered with card wires and revolves op-
posite to, and about one-twelfth the
speed of, the main cylinder. This
smaller cylinder "doffs" or removes
the fibre from the main cylinder and
further promotes the parallelism of
the material. With a remarkably fine
edge a stripping plate releases the cot-
ton from the doffer ; this is collected
by a bell-shaped receiver and forms a
thick, fluffv thread known as "sliver."

Four-feet cans hold the sliver,
which is slightly coiled by the mech-
anism of the carding engine, and then
transferred to the drawing frame.

(Fig- 3-)

Drawing frames generally have
their locus in the center of the card-
room. It is of the utmost import in
the economic working of a cotton mill
that drawing frames should be readily
accessible from the carding engines,
and be in close proximity to the
speed frames which they are to feed.
Hence two or three lines of drawing
frames occupy the whole length of
the middle portion of a cardroom.
These machines are simple in their
operations. Four to eight slivers are
passed through four pairs of rollers
revolving at varying speeds and thus
attenuating the cotton. The slivers
are also combined to make a stronger
one on the "delivery" or exit side of
the machine. In a frame of three
heads and seven deliveries we have
21 resultant slivers drawn from 80 to
160 slivers from the carding engine.

The drawing frame, by attenuating

442

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 3. PLACING THE SLIVERS ON DRAWING FRAME

and further parallelizing the fibres,
prepares the cotton for the first
process of spinning on the slubbing
frame.

The "slubber," as this machine is
termed in brief, receives the slivers in
cans from the delivery side of the
drawing frame. Each sliver passes
through rollers, which further attenu-
ate the fibres, and is spun on the
apex of a rapidly revolving spindle.
Simultaneously the spun thread is
wound on a wooden bobbin. "Slub-
ber" bobbins are transferred to the in-
termediate frames (Fig. 4), where
two threads are combined into one
and the resultant is spun finer still
and wound on a bobbin. The same
process is adopted in the roving
frame; so that the thread, when it

leaves the roving frame, is strong and
comparatively fine.

The processes of the cardroom ter-
minate here. From the rolled lap of
heterogeneous raw cotton we have
manufactured a thread, uniform in
strength and thickness, ready for the
self-acting mule.

Now in all these processes, intri-
cate but useful and necessary, there
are certain elements of risk, which
can be alleviated by means of well-
considered safety appliances. These
are as necessary as the machines ;
th'ey operate materially in saving life
and limb, and in reducing the casualty
bill. Both insurers and insured are
aware that a single casualty may in-
volve expense running to three fig-
ures ; and it is equally certain that

COTTON-MILL EFFICIENCY

443

FIG. 4. AT WORK ON AN INTERMEDIATE FRAME

£ ioo may be saved at the expense of
a safety appliance costing a single
shilling. If the enormous dispropor-
tion between the cost of an accident
and that of a "guard" is carefully
considered, there should be no apathy
with the general trend of safe-guard-
ing.

The cardroom has been prolific in
casualties more or less serious. The
number of reported accidents will il-
lustrate :

1900 1906 1907 1908

Carding engines 242 268 348 371

Drawing frames 47 67 80 70

Speed frames 270 359 420 394

In "fine-spinning" mills, where
combing is carried on in addition to
the processes already described, the
combers have been responsible for the
following casualties :

1900
35

1906

1907
82

1908
60

Authentic details such as these
afford ample proof of the advis-
ability of adopting preventive ap-
pliances wherever reasonably practi-
cable. In the totality of the accident
roll carding engines and speed frames
hold prominent positions ; and there
can be little doubt that a large pro-
portion of these casualties may be
avoided by the adoption of secure
fencing and by constant care on the
part of those responsible for its ef-
ficiency.

The greatest clanger in the carding
engine is concerned with the million
points of steel wire (Fig. 5) which
encompass the main cylinder. The
wires are ground laterally for about

444

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

-MICRO-PHOTOGRAPH OF CARD WIRE

one-sixth of an inch near the points,
and edge-wise ; so that each point in
magnified form has the appearance of
a formidable knife blade. Besides, in
the process of grinding the edge of
the wire, it frequently happens that a
small hook of steel is projected im-
mediately over the point. Now as
these wire points, with their incum-
bent hooklets, move towards the
worker when the cylinder is revolv-
ing, it will be clear that if these hook-
lets collide with any intervening hand
or finger serious injury may ensue.
Not serious, of course, from one or
two wire points, but from many; for
we must remember that over the
space of an operative's hand not less
than 2,000 of these act in concert, and
all contribute to the injury. This
form of casualty is so serious, in fact,

that no effort should be spared on the
part of employers to render it impos-
sible. It happens during the process
of stripping the wires of dust, neps
and short fibres. Three or four times
per day a cylindrical wire brush is ap-
plied to the card wires (Fig. 6.), for
the purpose of cleaning or "stripping"
them. They are covered with hinged
steel plates during ordinary carding
operations, and no risk ensues ; but
before the stripping brush can be ap-
plied the steel-plate cover must be re-
moved. It is levered up or down, ac-
cording as the cover is hinged above
or below. Then a portion of the main
cylinder is exposed. The stripping
brush is applied and revolves at a
rapid rate, while the cylinder is
slowed down considerably. If the
cover were closed immediately after
the removal of the stripping brush
the risk of accident would be elimi-
nated ; but the closure of the cover is
at times inadvertently omitted, while
the carding cylinder rapidly gains
speed to 160 revolutions per minute.
Thus the wire points in a 50-inch cyl-
inder move past the fixed edge of the
d offer plate at the rate.of 30 feet per
second.

Simultaneously with this accession
of speed another element contributes

FIG. 6. THE STRIPPING PROCESS ON A CARDING ENGINE

COTTON-MILL EFFICIENCY

445

FIG. 7. — -REMOVING THE CURTAIN FROM A CARDING ENGINE

FIG. 8. LOCKING ARRANGEMENTS ON A CARDING MACHINE WITH STRIPPING BRUSH IN POSITION

446

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 9. STRAP FORK ON CARDING ENGINE

This may be operated from either side of machine.

to the gathering danger. Strips of
loose cotton (Fig. 7) are formed by
the card comb, much like a striated
curtain, which gradually falls over
the front of the uncovered card wires
and obstructs them from the view of
the worker. And as this fibrous cur-
tain must be removed by the opera-
tive's hand close to the seat of danger,
the probable occurrence will be ob-
vious. In several instances the hand

of the worker has been seized by the
wire points and so severely injured as
to necessitate amputation.

Happily this form of accident bids
for entire suppression with the appli-
ances (Fig. 8) now being formulated.
These are to fulfil two essential re-
quirements laid down by the Federa-
tion of Master Cotton Spinners' As-
sociations in a letter to its members in
1908. The recommendations refer to

COTTON-MILL EFFICIENCY

447

locking arrangements for carding
engines, which should comply with
the two following conditions :

1. They must prevent the cover be-
ing opened until the cylinder has
ceased to run ; and

2. They must render it impossible
to restart the card (i. e., carding en-
gine) until the cover has been closed.
By the maintenance of these condi-
tions there can be no access, even in-
advertently, to the dangerous wire
points while the cylinder is revolting
towards the worker. The accidents
referred to cannot then happen.

It is quite true that the cover must
be removed for the occasional appli-
cation of a small emery roller to grind
the edges of the wires, but then the
cylinder will revolve in a direction
away from the worker, and will occa-
sion no risk.

These automatic locking arrange-
ments are already completed in over
twenty important mills ; while many
more have provided lockers on a con^-
siderable number of their machines.
It thus follows that the incidence of
accident from these card-cylinders is
narrowing, and with the complete in-
stallation of lockers the most serious
of carding-engine casualties will be-
come extinct.

We now come to deal with the
driving pulleys of carding engines
and the availability of strap forks for
moving the driving strap from fast to
loose pulley and vice versa. The gen-
eral custom is to transfer the strap by
hand ; but there must necessarily be
some danger attending this operation.
The hand may be caught between the
strap and the pulley, in which case the
injury is unlikely to be trivial.

To obviate such risk, strap forks
have been adopted in several cotton
mills, so that the strap can be trans-
ferred without manual contact. In
Fig. 9 a strap fork is shown which
may be actuated from either back or
front of the carding engine ; a hori-
zontal shaft, with terminal handles, is
geared to an upright rod, this is
levered to the sliding bracket which
bears the prongs of the fork. It is

FIG. 10. STRAP-FORK LEVERED INTO POSITION ON

A CARDING ENGINE

thus possible to manipulate the strap
several feet away.

When the card wires are submitted
to the grinding roller, the driving
strap is removed for reversed running
of the cylinder ; but even then the hand
need approach the driving pulley only
when the strap is reapplied. Strap
forks are adequately fitted with han-
dles (Fig. io), which make their
working easy and practicable.

The spur and bevel gearing of
carding engines have shown a com-
parative diminution in the casualty
roll since the general adoption of
safeguards. Fencing of these wheels
is usually completed by the makers of
the machine ; but in respect of types
made 20 to 30 years ago, and still run-
ning, important additions have been
made to the old guards. When clean-
ing, by hand, of certain parts of the
machine is done while the machine, as
a whole, is in motion, it is absolutely
necessary that secure fencing should
be provided for dangerous wheels
near to the parts so cleaned. Doffer
and carrier wheels (Fig. 19) are now
well fenced in most machines. Draw-
box wheels are also carefully cased
over. Calendar wheels have, in
former days, had a heavy toll of ac-
cidents to fingers ; these wheels are
now fenced on all sides, so that noth-
ing short of removal of the guards
can lead to injury (Fig. 12).

One important item is sometimes
omitted in regard to the "taker-in"
cover of the carding engine. It mav

448 .

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FsKSH^*- *fes8r 3' ;F5WS

•eSw*^

•4

t*1^ * \ \% '2"% SSfe*

[ r-; ■

- 1

FIG. 17. BOBBIN AND SPINDLE SHAFTS OF SPEED

FRAME, SHOWING SKEW BEVELS

be requisite to remove the cover for
the abstraction of hard accumulations
of cotton ; and, at times, the cover is
lifted before the taker-in (Fig. 13) is
quite stationary. Such procedure is
fraught with great danger; and, to
minimize the risk, covers are gen-
erally screwed to the frame of the
machine (Fig. 14). If then the driv-
ing strap be placed on the loose pulley
sufficient time will elapse for the
taker-in to cease running while the
screws are being released.

The taker-in is a cast-iron cylinder,
about 9 inches in diameter, in front of
main carding cylinder, to which it
gives the fibrous material. It is cov-
ered with serrated steel teeth, as
shown in Fig. 13, which are inserted
spirally in grooves cut into the sur-
face of the cylinder. This arrange-
ment facilitates the division of the
fibres of the lap as they pass under
the feed roller. As the taker-in re-
volves at a speed of 350 to 400 revolu-
tions per minute there can be no doubt
as to the danger of approaching it
when uncovered.

Drawing frames have much less to
answer for in the way of accidents.
There is less liability of moving parts

coming into collision with operatives'
mgers. The most dangerous factors
(Fig. 15) — the calendar and draught
roller wheels — are adequately fenced
by cast-iron guards (Fig. 16), so
fixed and levered to the machine
frame that casualties are well-nigh
impossible, unless the guards be
turned entirely out of their proper
place. If this were done, the guard
is of such nature and magnitude that
it could not escape the eye of the
worker. In the most recent machines
even this exigency is obviated by pro-
viding a locking appliance to main-
tain the guard in situ so long as the
machine is in motion.

The under-shafts of drawing
frames are occasional sources of in-
jury. These shafts revolve near the
floor at 150 to 200 per minute. Fe-
male labour is employed on these
machines, and when cleaning near the
shafts the aprons and skirts of the
workers are apt to be coiled round,
thus dragging the worker to the
floor, with consequent injury. Where
undershafts are encased with metallic
guards such accidents are impossible.
The driving-pulley, too, at the frame-
ends are unduly exposed when un-
fenced, and unwary operatives have
been involved thereby. A simple
form of fender guard meets the diffi-
culty, and workers may pass and
repass in perfect confidence.

The highest average of accidents
in the card-room is concerned with
"speed frames," slubbers, intermedi-
ates and rovers. These are three
grades of the same form of machine.
Slubbers are the slowest type of
speed-frame, and receive the sliver in
cans from the drawing-frame, to be
spun and wound on bobbins. Inter-
mediates receive the bobbins of yarn
of the slubbers and spin it on finer
bobbins. Rovers take the intermedi-
ate yarn and spin it into a finer
thread still.

The rates of motion on these sev-
eral machines are : —

Revolutions
per Minute

Slubbing-frame spindles 700 to 800

Intermediate-frame spindles S00 to 900

Roving-frame spindles 900 to 1,100

COTTON-MILL EFFICIENCY

449

I I

S a

» 2

fa fe,

5-5

45°

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 18. GUARDS OVER BOBBIN AND SPINDLE WHEELS OF SPEED FRAME

The spindles appear on the front of
the machine (Fig. 17) in close prox-
imity to the worker, and are con-
nected with two horizontal shafts,
one near the floor, the spindle shaft,
and one immediately under the bob-
bins, known as the bobbin-shaft. On
each shaft a skew-bevel operates
every spindle and bobbin. In a rov-

ing frame of 180 spindles we have
thus 360 bevels (the driving and
the driven wheels) to the spindle-
shaft, and the like number to the
bobbin-shaft, or a total of 720
toothed wheels. Furthermore, each
shaft-bevel is fixed to the shaft itself
by three screws with projecting
square heads. Clearly, therefore,

COTTON-MILL EFFICIENCY

4Si

4S2

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 19. GUARDS OVER DIFFERENT WHEEL TRAINS IN THE HEADSTOCK OF A SPEED FRAME

these bobbin and spindle-shafts bristle
with danger-points from end to end,
and safe working would be impossible
if fencing were omitted. The present
method of guarding is adequate for
ordinary purposes of spinning.
Plates of steel, or wooden flats, cover
the top of the shafts ; a slanting steel

plate fitted in slots covers the upper
front nearest the worker, and a
curved steel plate covers the lower
front (Fig 18). On the spindle-
shaft the back is covered entirely by
plates reaching to the floor. The
bobbin-shaft has a cover for the
upper back only. The lower back and

COTTON-MILL EFFICIENCY

453

FIG. 20. SAFETY-LOCKING DOOR OF HEADSTOCK GEARING OF SPEED FRAME

the under sides are generally open,
leaving an interval of four inches be-
tween the front plate and the mid-
rib dividing the two lines of spindles,
and six inches between the midrib
and the back plate. And it is in this
io-inch interval that the most severe
bobbin-wheel accidents occur. The
operatives clean the adjacent guards
and stationary parts of the machine
while the latter is in motion ; cleaning
cloths are captured by the projecting

screw-heads and by the skew-bevel
teeth. Fingers follow the cloth, and
injury ensues before the worker can
extricate herself. With spindles re-
volving at 700 to 1 100 it will be evi-
dent that the injury is the work of
a moment, and gives the person con-
cerned little chance of escape. If the
10-inch space can be adequately cov-
ered, the operative's safety in clean-
ing will be considerably enhanced.
Efforts are already under considera-

454

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 21.

-DRAFT WHEEL OF SPEED FRAME

tion to effect this needed improvement.
The headstock (Fig. 19), or driv-
ing part of the speed-frame, is a com-
posite of mechanism which is admit-
tedly dangerous if unprotected. The
wheels herein are spurred or beveled
with finely-cut teeth, and accidents
from these have been numerous and
severe. Up to recent years a method
of fencing was in vogue which
shielded parts of each dangerous train
of wheels. These guards doubtless
saved accidents to operatives engaged

in cleaning the headstocks. Twist-
wheels, sun-and-planet wheels, swing-
wheels, lifter-wheels, were dealt with
well at the ingathering points, but
parts adjacent were not so adequately
protected as to prevent accidents.

The modern type of headstock
guard (Fig. 20), bids for universal
adoption, inasmuch as it is doubly
preventive. An automatic door closes
over the whole of the headstock
gearing, and this cannot be opened
so long as the machine is in motion.
Besides, the machine cannot be set
in motion until this iron plate door
is shut. The effect of this appliance
has been most salutary.

But perhaps the most striking in-
stance of the efficiency of a guard is
seen in the draft-change wheels (Fig.
21). These operate the rollers at-
tenuating the threads of cotton as it
passes through the machine. In many
large factories these wheels were en-
tirely unprotected, and severe acci-
dents were frequent, some involving
the loss of fingers. Now these wheels
are universally fenced (Fig. 22), and

FIG. 22. GUARDS OVER DRAFT PINIONS OF SPEED FRAMES

COTTON-MILL EFFICIENCY

455

FIG. 23.- — GUARD OVER RACK PINION OF SPEED FRAME

the accident roll has been reduced by
92 per cent.

In all speed- frames the bobbin-
shaft, with its bevel-wheels, rises and
falls simultaneously with the build of
the bobbin of yarn. In the slubber
this vertical motion is most rapid,
owing to the thick sliver-coils being
placed on the bobbin at greater in-
tervals ; on the rover the vertical mo-
tion is slowest, the sliver being finer
and coiled closely on the bobbin. The
rise and fall is regulated by a series
of small pinions geared to vertical
racks attached to the bobbin-shaft
frame. These pinions revolve slowly ;
but accumulations of cotton are un-
suspectingly removed from them dur-
ing cleaning operations, Casualties
occur chiefly on the slubbing-frame,
where the reversal of the pinion is
most abrupt. Operatives pick out the
"fly" or waste cotton when the lift-
ing rack is near its highest point.
Suddenly the rack descends, the pin-
ion reverses, and the unwary finger
is trapped. To meet this difficulty,
guards are now provided in sheet-
steel (Fig. 23).

fig. 24. — one of Lancashire's new cotton mills at middleton

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

By Lionel Wiener

V.— THE CENTRAL GROUP

THE Central Group is by far the
largest of the Brazilian rail-
way systems, comprising, as it
does, nearly half of the total mileage.

This group is made up of a num-
ber of lines,- leading either to Rio or
to Santos.

Starting from Rio, the lines run
parallel to the coast northward into
the State of Espirito Santo, south-
ward into the State of Sao Paulo,
and inland to the Sao Francisco river,
which is navigable through the whole
of the Minas and Bahia states.

Starting from Santos and Sao
Paulo, the main lines run west to
Corumba, north to Araguay and Ca-
talao, and south towards Parana and
the republic of Uruguay.

Between these two systems there
is an incomplete network of railways
which we will call the Minas Inter-
mediate System.

Of course each of these systems is
not confined to the State whose
name it bears, but this division is
practical for railway purposes, and,
in fact, it is lkely to become a real
division shortly, as the more im-
portant companies are gradually ab-
sorbing the smaller ones. This will
leave the following railways :

In the Rio division, the Leopoldina
Railway ; in the Sao Paulo division,
three important companies, the
Mogyana, Paulista and Brazil rail-
ways, besides the Sao Paulo Railway
down to Santos.

In between. these there will be the
Central of Brazil Government Rail-
way and a new system formed of the
various Minas lines under govern-
ment control.

All of these railways are served
by but two harbours of any import-

456

ance : Santos, in the Sao Paulo por-
tion; and Rio in the other.

In both portions long penetration
lines are sent out, like tentacles into
the wild country beyond, some con-
necting with the first and others with
the second of these harbours.

Thus, from Santos, the Sao Paulo
Railway leads to Sao Paulo, beyond
which the following connections ex-
tend :

i. Itarare and Santa Maria, in the
south, can be reached over the Brazil
Railway and the Rio Grande Rail-
way, a distance of more than 1,200
miles, this line being nearly com-
pleted.

2. The Sorocoabana, now the
Brazilian Railway, also leads west-
ward to Salto Grande and Agua Boa,
476 miles from Santos ; it is about to
be continued to Tibyrica, several hun-
dred miles beyond, at the confluence
of the Paranapanema and Parana
rivers.

3. The Northwestern Railway leads
to Itapura and Corumba, on the Bo-
livian frontier, a distance of more
than 1,200 miles from Santos. This
line is open to Itapura, and construc-
tion is being continued beyond.

4. Barrettos, in the northeast, near
the Rio Grande river, is reached by
the main line of the Paulista Rail-
way, a distance of 287 miles from
Santos.

5. The main line of the Mogyana
Railway leads to Araguay, 670 miles
from Santos, and is about to be ex-
tended still further, into the State of
Goyaz.

From Rio the Central Railway ex-
tends :

1. To Formiga and Catalao,
through Barra Mansa, bv the West

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

457

Leopoldina Ry. System

Central of Brazil Ey's

"West of Minas Ry.

Private Lines belonging to
various Companies

Railways Building or Projected
River Steamers
Limit of the States
End of Steamer Lines

CENTRAL GROUP OF RAILWAYS EASTERN PORTION

of Minas and the Goyaz Railways,
and then on the Araguay river, down
which steamboat lines ply to Belem.
Of the total distance of 1,009 miles,
a little less than one-half is open to
traffic, reaching to Bambuhy.

2. The West of Minas Railway
reaches to Sitio and Paraopeba, a
distance of 603 miles.

3. The main line of the Central
of Brazil Railway reaches a distance
of 637 miles to Pirapora. Both of
these lines reach the Sao Francisco
river where it is navigable.

The lines of the Leopoldina Rail-
way running out of Rio are shorted,
and include the section from Rio to
Saudo, 281 miles long ; from Rio
to Santa Luisa, 270 miles in length ;
and from Rio to Victoria, the capi-
tal of the State of Espirito Santo, a
distance of 375 miles, including a
short section still under construction.
All these lines lead either to Sao
Paulo or to Rio, not only because
they are the capitals of States, but
because the Serra do Mar is so for-
bidding that it is nearly impossible

45»

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

to run down to any other harbour.

Having given a list of the pene-
tration, or inward lines, we will cast
a glance at the exportation, or out-
ward lines. These all branch off
from a line which, starting from Sao
Paulo, runs approximately parallel to
the coast. Then crossing the Para-
hyba river a few miles from Sao
Paulo, each line follows the stream
through Barra Mansa and Entre Rios
to Campos.

The course of the river is curious.
Taking its source near the sea, it
starts southward towards Sao Paulo.
It then curves around the Serra do
Mar and follows the land side of the
mountains parallel to the coast, run-
ning from a long distance to the
north, until, in Sao Fidelis, it seems
suddenly to make up its mind and
rushes into the sea at Sao Joao with
such impetuosity that it forms a bar-
rier absolutely impassable to craft
of any kind. It is at this point that
the railway from Sao Paulo, which
has kept to its banks, now on one
side and now on the other, finally
reaches the coast, after a run of 547
miles.

1. South of Sao Joao, the first line
to scale the hills is the one from
Nictheroy, opposite Rio, to Mello
Barretto, on the Parahyba river.
This line is 130 miles long, and until
recently it used locomotives on the
Fell system, with third rail, on the
grades.

2. The Mage and Theresopolis
Railway also starts from the bay of
Rio, but goes no further than the
21 miles to Theresopolis; this line
uses the Riggenbach rack system.

3. From Nictheroy to Entre Rios,
by the Leopoldina Railway is a dis-
tance of 80 miles, and a rack is re-
quired.

4. The Central of Brazil Railway
operates a narrow gauge line from
Rio to Parahyba do Sul. This line
is 104 miles long, and does not use
a rack, but the grades are too steep.

5. The broad gauge main line runs
from Rio to Barra do Pirahy, a fine
piece of engineering 68 miles long.

6. A line was projected fifty years
ago from Angra to Barra Mansa, but
only 27 out of the total of 68 miles
have been built, and the road never
completed.

7. The Santos and Sao Paulo Rail-
way is a remarkable, broad gauge
cable railway, 54 miles long up the
Serra.

Four other lines are projected,
down to Santos, all intended to use
artificial adhesion. Beyond these the
Parana Railway scales the hills, this
being the most noteworthy of the
number.

Still further south, lines have been
started to Sao Francisco, Itajahy, and
Laguna, but none of these has got
beyond the foot of the Serra.

Thus we have, along one thousand
miles of coast, only seven lines in
all ; and of these two use rack rail,
one a safety third rail, one employs
cable traction, and one has grades
which are too steep.

THE CENTRAL RAILWAY OF BRAZIL

The Central Railway of Brazil is
one of the oldest railways of the
republic. Starting from Rio, it
scales the Serro do Mar, includes a
penetration line, and reaches Barra
do Pirahy, beyond the hills. From
Barra there is an easterly extension
along the banks of the Parahyba to
Porto Novo da Cunha, whence it is
continued, by the Leopoldina Railway
and a westerly one, up the river to
Sao Paulo. The main trunk line
continues nearly due north, right
away to the Sao Francisco river,
which it reaches at Pirapora, beyond
which transport by river steamers
continues for an unbroken stretch of
nearly a thousand miles.

The Central Railway possesses an
interest all its own, not only because
it is one of the most important rail-
roads of Brazil, but also because it
has ■ literally grown all these years,
owing to the tenacity of a number of
railway ministers, who have suc-
ceeded each other in far too rapid
succession.

The line was originally started by

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

459

SIX-COUPLED SWITCHING LOCOMOTIVE FOR THE CFNTEAL RAILWAY OF BRAZIL. BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE

COMPANY, 1902

the Dom Pedro Secundo Railway
Company inland for a distance of 32
miles from Rio. It was opened to
traffic in 1858, with an equipment of
9 locomotives, 40 carriages, and 100
wagons ; the track being constructed
on the Barlow-Brunei broad-gauge
system, of 5 feet 3 inches, its present
gauge. It is doubtful whether it
was wise to build such a broad gauge
line across such a hilly district, and
there is little doubt that the expendi-
ture involved in negotiating the Serro
do Mar led to the slow progress of
the company, and also its ultimate
discomfiture, since the crossing the
range of hills was particularly dif-
ficult. In the short stretch of 29
miles between Belem and Barra do
Pirahy there are no fewer than 16
tunnels, one of which is nearly il/2
miles long.

The difference in level between the
tunnel and Belem is 1,080 feet. The
large tunnel required six years in
construction, and during that period
a temporary line was laid over the
hill, a plan which had previously been
used on the Baltimore & Ohio Rail-
road by Mr. Latrobe, and since in
other places in the United States.
The steepest grade on the Dom
Pedro II temporary line was 1 in

18, and the trains were hauled by
ordinary adhesion locomotives.

After a lapse of eight years the
stretch of 68 miles from Rio to
Barra do Pirahy was opened, there
being seven sections in this portion.
From here to Pirapora, on the Sao
Francisco river, the full length of
the line was completed only by Jan-
uary, 1910, this adding 34 more sec-
tions, bringing the total up to 41 sec-
tions, a distance of 574 miles, in a
period of fifty years. During this
time the original company, which had
become financially embarrassed, had
disappeared, and the government of
the empire had assumed control of
the property, extending the line
northward, as we have seen, through
Minas ; besides east and west, up
and down the Parahyba valley. The
westward branch ran to the frontier
of the State of Rio, where it con-
nected with the Rio and Sao Paulo
Railway, a metre-gauge line, running
into Sao Paulo. This line has since
been bought, and altered to the gauge
of 5 feet 3 inches. The northern
extension was built to the metre
gauge beyond Lafayette, about half
way, but it is gradually being con-
verted to the broad gauge.

In 1889, when the Republic was

460

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

established, the name was changed
from the Dom Pedro II Railway to
the Central Railway of Brazil. The
railway comprises, besides the above,
a branch from Rio to Santa Cruz and
Matadouro ; two branches starting
from Barra Mansa north and south,
each about 30 miles long; and parts
of the West of Minas trunk line,
which should have started from An-
gra, on the coast. There was too
great an interval between these sec-
tions and the rest of the West of
Minas Railway for them to be
worked at any profit, and upon tak-
ing over the West of Minas Rail-
way, the government incorporated
them with the Central Railway.

Bello Horizonto, the capital of the
State of Minas, is connected by a
short branch line to the main north
line, and another branch starts from
nearly the same point eastward. It
was begun by the State of Minas,
and known as the Santa Anna de
Ferros Railway, which point it will
reach in due time. This branch is

very important, because it is a pene-
tration line which will link up the
South of Bahia Railway with the
Central Railway, and connect with
all the centre of Minas, including the
rich Diamantina and Pechana dis-
tricts. In addition, the Bello Hori-
zonto connection with West of Minas
is the natural extension of this line
further west, linking it with the
northern railway of the State of Sao
Paulo.

Another interesting line is the one
from Rio through Estiva to Para-
hyba do Sul, called the Linha
Auxiliar, formerly the Brazil Im-
provements Railway Company. This
follows the main line of the Central
Railway from Rio to Belem. Much
traffic comes down from the north,
from Ouro, Preto, and Marianna,
where the Ouro-Preto branch is about
to be extended, and to the Lafayette
manganese districts, also to Entre
Rios, where the Porto Nevo traffic
joins it. The trains running round
to Barra Mansa formerly met the

PASSENGER CAR BUILT FOR THE CENTRAL RAILWAY OF BRAZIL BY LES ATELIERS METALLURGIQUES, BRUSSELS

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

461

important Sao Paulo traffic, all of it
continuing down to Rio. This stretch
was therefore much congested, being
single track except near Rio, where
there are two, three and four tracks.
The government put off widening the
road because of the expense. The
reason for the Central Railway pur-
chasing the Auxiliar line was that
most of the traffic of Entre Rios
could be directed that way, besides
being shorter. The Auxiliar line is
built to the metre gauge, but the
broad-gauge portion between Para-
byba and Entre Rios has been laid
with a third rail, permitting through
trains to be run from Rio to Entre
Rios. The wagons are of the same
capacity as those of the broad-gauge,
30 tons. The gradients are steeper
than on the main line, but there are
fewer stations, and the route is es-
sentially a through one.

The following data will enable the
two routes to be compared :

COMMON LINE— ENTRE RIOS— PARAHYBA.

Length 6 miles.

Stations 1

Curves 600 ft. rad

Gradients 1 in 55

Quickest train J hour.

PARAHYBA TO RIO VIA BARRA-PIRAHY LINE.

Length 117 miles.

Stations 54

Curves 600 ft. rad

Gradients 1 in 55

Quickest train 4f hours.

PARAHYBA TO RIO VIA AUXILIAR LINE

Length 101 miles.

Stations 17

Curves 330 ft. rad.

Gradients 1 in 36

Quickest train 8£ hours.

In 1908 the third rail was con-
tinued from Entre Rios to Porto
Novo, where it joins the Leopoldina
Railway.

The Auxiliar line, notwithstanding
all that is argued in its favour, is
not the useful adjunct which it
should be, and should the Rio ex-
tension be built it would be useful
to the Leopoldina Railway or to the
West of Minas Railway.

Apart from the Leopoldina Rail-
way Company, none of the other
railways, except those of Sao Paulo,
has a well denned and proper zone.
This explains why so many of them
keep on changing hands, various

combinations being tried only to be
abandoned. Both the rivalry and
competition of the several companies,
as well as the influence of politics,
contribute to the general instability.
In January, 1909, the system was
made up as follows :

Date of
Line. Opening. Miles. Gauge.

Main — Center Line, Rio to

Lafayette 1858-1883 452.3 Broad.

10.3 Mixed.
Lafayette to Miguel

Burnier 1886-1887 35.6 Mixed.

Miguel Burnier to

Pirapora 1887-1910 511 .0 Metre.

Gamboa Branch to Maritima,

Rio 18S0 0.6 Broad.

Santa Cruz Branch to Mata-

douro 1878-1884 35.0 Broad.

Santa Cruz Branch on to

Itaguahy Building Broad.

Paracamby Branch 1861 3.0 Broad.

Ouio-Preto Branch 1888 3.8 Mixed.

Ouro-Preto Branch 1888 22.8 Metre.

Bello-Horizonto Branch 1895 8.S Metre.

S. Anna de Ferros Branch to

Caethe 1908 10.1 Metre.

S. Anna de Ferros Branch

onward Building

Porto Branch from Entre Rios 1S67-1S71 40.0 Mixed.
Auxiliar Line. Rio Parahyba . 1S98 104.7 Metre.

Sao Paulo Line, from Barra

dcPirahy 1871-1875 242.6 Broad.

Cedro Branch, from Barra

Mmsa 1897 32.5 Metre.

Rio Claro Branch, from Barra

Mansa 1897 26.8 Metre.

Penha Branch, from Sao Paulo 1875 Broad

Of the total 1,159 miles, 40 per
cent., or 555 miles, are broad gauge;
46 per cent., or 531 miles, are metre
gauge, and 6 per cent., or 72.4 miles,
are mixed gauge.

The system is single track through
out, with the exception of a portion
of the main line leading out of Rio.
There are three tracks from the Rio
central station to Madeira, about 10
miles out, and two tracks on the
Belem, 28 miles further. There is
a large suburban traffic on this sec-
tion, which is much congested in the
morning and evening, notwithstand-
ing a loop for turning the trains at
Belem, and a relief service from the
Rio Initial Station to Belem, by the
Auxiliar line. Taking the bull by the
horns, the railway authorities have
decided to introduce electric traction
on the suburban section, and per-
haps on the entire Serra line.

Under the present conditions the
suburban traffic is continuous day
and night. The utilization of the
trains, which in 1907. was 40.42 per
cent of the seats- offered, reached

462

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

LOCOMOTIVE FOR METRE GAUGE, 4-8-0 TYPE, BUILT FOR THE CENTRAL RAILWAY OF BRAZIL BY THE
AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE COMPANY

64.94 per cent, in 1908, and is still
increasing. As the flow of passen-
gers is irregular, this means that be-
tween five and eleven o'clock in the
morning on the up trains, and be-
tween three and eight o'clock on the
down trains, fully half the passengers
are obliged to stand.

The new station at Rio is to have
ten lines, besides an up-and-down
line, connected by a 131-foot loop, to
be used exclusively by surburban
trains, this loop, which forms a
complete circle, thus being useful for
shunting purpose. There is no doubt
that this will be the quickest way to
deal with the expected traffic.

The extraordinary rapid growth of
the passenger traffic in late years is
shown by the following figures, which
refer to suburban passengers only :

1903 13,423,779

1904 15,388,061

1905 16,970,034

1906 17,858,385

1907 18,766 689

1908 20,128.387

The total number of other passen-
gers in 1908 was only 1,876,588, or
less than one-tenth of the number of
suburban passengers. This is doubt-
less partly due to the low rates for
suburban passengers, and to the
high cost of houses in Rio.

Monthly season-tickets are issued
at cheap fares ; for instance, to Para-
camby. a distance of 44 miles, or to
Mendes, 58 miles, at £3 15s.; and
to Desengado, 83 miles, and to
Bueno, 78 miles, for £7 10s.

The cost of kilometrical books is
as follows :

3,000 kilometres (1 864 miles) $102 (/ 6 7s. 5d )

6,000 kilometres (3,728 m les) 180 ( 11 5s.)

9,000 kilometres (5,592 miles) 248 ( 15 10s.)

12.000 kilometres (7,456 miles) 300 ( 1815s.)

These rates are about one-half of
those charged by the Leopoldina
Company.

The Central Railway is not a sys-
tem, properly so-called ; it is made
up of two perpendicular lines, Rio to
the North, Sao Paulo to the East,
where the Leopoldina acts as a
boundary. A number of unimportant
branches, belonging to small private
companies, join it at convenient
places. These act as feeders, but are
worked at too high a cost, as might
easily have been foreseen. An amal-
gamation with the Central Railway
is desirable, and has, in fact, been
commenced. Thus, of the nine
branches of the Central Railway, five,
the Bello Horizonto, the S. Anna de
Ferros, the Sao Paulo, the Cedro,
and the Barra Mansa, did not origin-
ally belong to it, and have been taken
over only recently.

There are still nine short branches
of the system, aggregating 289 miles,
which should be absorbed, namely:

1. The Rio Doce Railway, 108
miles long", running- from Palmvra,
on the Central Railway, to Livra-
mento, and being extended further.

2. The Juiz de Fora and Rio Novo,
recently taken up by the New Juiz
de Fora Railway Company, a short

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

463

COMBINATION CAR BY LES ATELIERS METALLURGIQUES, BRUSSELS

connection, 38 miles long, between
the northern extension of the Cen-
tral Railway and the Leopoldina sys-
tem.

3. The Uniao Valenciana Railway,
a line 39 miles long, running north
from Desengano, on the Sao Paulo

extension, to Rio Preto, on the fron-
tier of Minas. This line is built to
the 3 feet 8 inch gauge.

4. The Rio das Flores Railway, 38
miles in length, which connects Para-
hybuna, on the Sao Paulo branch,
with Commercio, a station on the

RAILWAY TRUCK BY LES ATELIERS METALLURGIQUES, BRUSSELS

464

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

DECAPOD LOCOMOTIVE, BUILT FOR THE CENTRAL RAILWAY OF BRAZIL IN 1885

The first locomotive of this type built by the Baldwin Locomotive Works.

northern extension. The last five
miles of this line, from Tres Ilhas to
Parahybuna, and temporarily worked
with horse traction.

5. The Vassoura Railway, a little
line only four miles long and 23^-
inch gauge, reaching the town of
Vassoura, just off the Sao Paulo
branch.

6. The Bananal Railway, 18 miles
long, from Barra Mansa. This line
has had much trouble to maintain an
existence. It became so badly in-
volved in debt that it was seized by
the creditors and closed for several
years. It is open again, but its pros-
pects are so poor that it has been
relieved from the usual fiscal tax on
all railways, and it is worked now
with a small yearly deficit.

7. The Rezende and Bocaina Rail-
way. This is but the first part of
the Rozende and Areal Railway, a
stunted line 27 miles long.

8. The Lorena and Coronel Bar-
reiros Railway, a line 12^2 miles
long, is operated by the war depart-
ment, to connect the Barreiros
powder-magazine with the Sao Paulo
extension.

9. The Taubate and Tremembe,
the Local Interests Railway, is a
short line, 24 inches gauge, and 7
miles long, on the Sao Paulo ex-
tension to the river Parahyba, a little
to the north. A project has been
standing for a long time to lengthen
this line southward to Ampare, a

rather important harbour on the
coast, at present without railway con-
nections.

In like manner the Rio Claro
branch of the Central Railway is
destined to reach Angra, on the coast,
where it is to be joined by the Mata-
doura branch from Rio.

The Rio do Ouro Railway has pur-
posely been left until the last. This
is also a government road, which has
been kept separate from the Central
Railway, which it follows closely
from Rio northward, forking into
two branches, at the points of which
lie Rio do Ouro and Tinga. In-
cluding nine small branches, it is
only 71 miles long, and is used prin-
cipally in connection with the water
supplies of Rio. In 1906 it was
operated at a cost of 184.65 per
cent of the gross receipts, and in
1907, at 120 per cent. This is rather
better than usual, and in 1897 it
reached as high as 551.4 per cent.
This line was opened in 1883, and
has always been worked at a loss,
except in 1889, at 76 per cent., and
in 1890 at 97 per cent. The rolling
stock comprises 16 locomotives, 16
coaches, and 90 wagons. There is
little chance of such a line being
of any value to the Central Railway,
or to anvbody else.

The Central Railway itself is not
a financial success ; it is worked at a
cost of 97 to 98 per cent, of the
earnings. This, however, is not so bad'

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

465

MALLET LOCOMOTIVE BUILT FOR THE CENTRAL RAILWAY OF BRAZIL BY THE AMERICAN LOCOMOTIVE COMPANY

as it seems. The State contends that
it does not want the road as a source
of revenue, but rather to train its
engineers and form a basis of com-
parison for other roads.

Offers to lease the system have
frequently been made, even as far
back as 1869; and again in 1883,
1895, 1898, and 1903, but none of
these offers has come to anything.
The last time the matter was con-
sidered the leasing principle was ac-
cepted by parliament, on the condi-
tion that the lessee should pay 10
per cent of the gross earnings and
complete within ten years all the
works then projected or in hand.
These latter included the construction
of the fourth surburban track, the
conversion of the Sao Paulo line to
the broad gauge, the consolidation of
all bridges to Entre Rios, the con-
struction of a second track from
Belem to Barra do Pirahy, and the

building of the extension to Pirapora
and the new Rio station. The lease
was to run for fifteen years. These
terms were, of course, far too dras-
tic, especially when it is considered
that the staff of the railway, under
the government operation, was more
than 12,000, and it was forbidden to
discharge the useless three-fourths of
them, so it is no wonder that the
proposition was declined. It is inter-
esting, however, to note that for the
first time the principle of leasing was
considered in the House, instead of
adhering positively to the "patriot-
ism of government railway enter-
prise."

It would certainly be a good thing
to lease the system, which is worked
with most of the drawbacks of State
railways, and only one of the ad-
vantages, that of cutting down the
rates as soon as there is a small mar-
gin of profit.

CONSOLIDATION LOCOMOTIVE OF 1905. BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE WORKS ■

5 6

466

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

The following are the new rates, In computing these fares the Cen-

which have been in force since 1908, tral Railway is obliged to enter into

converted into the equivalent in considerations which would not in-

pence : fluence a private company. The de-

FREIGHT AND PASSENGER RATES ON THE CENTRAL RAILWAY OF BRAZIL

PassengerFap.es. From 1 to 156 From 157 to 312 From 313 to 468 469 and Over. Minimum.

Express— 1st single 1.93 1.45 0.87 0.63 6d.

1st return 2.90 2.17 1.30 0.94 15d.

y 2d single 1.20 0.72 0.39 0.24 4.5d.

2d return 1.81 1.09 0.58 0.36 7.5d.

Slow train— 1st single 1.45 , 1.11 0.72 0.48 4.5d.

1st return 2.17 1.67 1.09 0.72 7.5d.

2d single 0.87 0.63 0.24 0.14 3d.

j 2d return 1.30 0.94 0.36 0.21 7.5d.

LUGCAGE AND MERCHANDISE.

Per Ton. From 1 to 62 From 63 to 187 From 188 to 375 376 and Over. Minimum.

Express— Parcels 39.71 28.85 19.20 14.48 4.5d.

Luggage 25.22 19.20 14.48 9.16 3d.

Slow train— Parcels 18.10 1} 48 9.65 7.24 4.5d.

Luggage 15.69 12.07 7.24 ,, 4.82 3d.

Animals. . ...

Per head— Horses 1.81 1.69 1.57 1.45 15d.

Oxen 0.96 0.84 0.72 0.60 15d.

Sheep, pigs 0.23 0.21 0.14 0.07 6d.

Per wagon— Horses, oxen 7.68 5.76 3.86 3.14 18.s 9d.

Sheep, pigs ...14.50 9.60 4.80 3.62 18.s 9d.

Coffee 6.76 3.14 1.57 1.45

4.59 2.17 1.09 0.97 22.5d

Lime pays 2s. per 9-ton wagon rates are in force on the short dis-

and 62 miles, plus a fixed charge of tance trains.

4s. lod. Manganese ore pays $8 up velopment of the country served by

to 315 miles, with the exchange at 6 a railway is always a matter of the

to 8 pence per milreis ($) ; with a utmost importance, but in this case

weaker exchange these rates are in- the opening up of new industries,

creasd at 1 milreis per penny and de- whether on the system or not, is a

creased at }4 milreis per penny at consideration which weighs in estab-

a better exchange, up to is. per lishing the tariffs.

milreis. For and above this ex- The lines are laid with heavy rails,

change the charge is 6 milreis. Be- usually on wooden sleepers, placed

yond 315 miles, manganese pays 31 inches from centre to centre.

0.019 milreis per ton-mile. The mo- There are two types of iron sleepers

bility of the charge with the ex- for each gauge. On lines laid to the

change is curious, but it does not metre gauge they weigh 53 to 79

make much complication. pounds each ; on broad gauge lines

The price of coffee carriage de- the weights are 121 and 124 pounds

pends upon the coffee market. The respectively.

Sao Paulo Coffee Syndicate fixes the There are four types of rails on

price and the above rates are reduced the metre-gauge roads, weighing 42,

by 10 per cent, per each milreis fall 48, 52, and 55 pounds per yard, and

beneath the standard- price of 7 mil- four types on the broad-gauge roads

reis per arroba (33 pounds). as well. The older rails, called the

Specially- reduced fares are pro- A-type, were in lengths of 25 or 21

vided for the suburban trains. FrOm feet; and weighed 68 pounds per

Rio Central to D. Clara, 1 10 miles, or yard. The B-type weighed 62

; to Deodro, 15 miles, and from Sao pounds, and was in three lengths, 24,

.. Paulo to Penha, tickets are issued at 28, and 30 feet. The C-tpye, a

4/<2</., first class, and 3^., second heavier rail, weighs 84 pounds, and is

class, with return tickets at "jYid. used in lengths of 27, 30, and 35

and \Yid. These fares apply strictly feet.

to the suburban trains, and other The increase in weights of rolling

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

467

stock and in traffic, however, has de-
manded still heavier rails, and the
company is now installing a rail of
102 pounds per yard.

Wooden sleepers are considerably
cheaper than iron ones, especially
as first-class wood is coomon and not
costly, whereas the freight charge on
iron sleepres forms a heavy handi-
cap. On the broad-gauge lines the
sleepers are 8 feet 8 inches to 9 feet
long, 8 to 10 inches wide, and 6
inches thick ; on the metre-gauge
roads the dimensions are 6 feet to 6
feet 4 inches long, 7 to 8 inches wide,
and 5 to SlA inches deep. These
sleepers are creosoted, absorbing
about lYi gallons under a pressure

sobrazil tree, the yellow sucupira,
tupinhoan, ubatan, urucurana, and the
tinted cannella.

Second-class woods : The angelin,
the angice, the yellow arapocu, pink
arariba, yellow cannella, cangerana,
capehano, garapa, grossahy, guarabu,
iperiba, jatoba, mangalo, assaran-
duba, oiti, oelo, jatahy, yellow peroba,
red sapucahy, and last of all, the
turuman.

Of the above, the black and red
oleo wood last 12 years, and the
coloured jacacaranda, the piuna, the
sobrazil, the yellow and black su-
cupira, ubatan, and urucurana, about
1 1 years.

The best and hardest wood is the

FORNEY TYPE LOCOMOTIVE, BUILT FOR THE CENTRAL RAILWAY OF BRAZIL BY THE AMERICAN

LOCOMOTIVE COMPANY

of 73 pounds. Experience shows that
this operation extends the life of a
sleeper from 9 to 15 years, the cost
being raised from $s. to 55. 2^2 d.
only. The choice of the most suitable
wood has been, an important matter.
The various species have been
grouped into first and second class,
as follows :

First-class woods : The arceira do
sertao wood is the very best ; then
come the Brazil tree, the black or
white cannella, black or white gua-
rauma, the ipe (one of the heaviest
woods, with a specific gravity of
1. 1 56), the coloured jacacranda, the
black or red oleo tree, the pink per-
oba, the puina, the red sapucaia, the

arceira, whose specific gravity is
1. 219, and its strength 14,370 pounds
per square inch. The poorest is the
yellow cannella, with a specific grav-
ity of 0.402, and a strength of only
10,987 pounds per square inch.

Tunnels and bridges are frequent
on the Central Railway. The five
bridges over the Parahyba are of
284 feet and 541 feet, both near Ser-
raria ; of 538 feet, at Guararema; of
445 feet, at Anta ; and of 538 feet
in length, near Sapucaia. The Re-
tiro bridge, on the northern line, is on
a curve, and also on a grade of 1
in 80, and is 356 feet long.

Stone ballast is used everywhere,
as it has been found most economical,

468

CASSEER'S MAGAZINE

BALANCED COMPOUND TEN-WHEELED PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVEj BUILT BY THE BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE WORKS
FOR THE CENTRAL RAILWAY OF BRAZIL

notwithstanding the heavy original
outlay; nearly one-half the system,
449 miles out of the 1,102 miles be-
ing already so ballasted. Gradients
on the broad-gauge lines are limited
to 1 :55, and the curves to a radius
of 597 feet. On the metre-gauge
lines the steepest grades are 1 150 on
the main lines, and 1 133 on the
branches, with a radius for curves
never less than 330 feet. The whole
system comprises 36 per cent, of level
lines and 55 per cent, of alignments,
this percentage is always quoted for
all Brazilian lines, and is really of
hardly any use to determine their
difficulty.

The rolling stock is good, and is
on the American system, including
first and second class coaches,
sleepers, baggage and postal cars.

On January 1, 1909, the company
owned :

Broad Metre

Gauge Gauge Total.

Coaches^

Special 6 16 22

Passenger and sleeper 333 98 431

Vans 44 16 60

Wagons:

Animal 290 57 347

Open 844 245 1,089

Closed 1,134 252 1,386

Special 28 12 40

Locomotives 244 93 337

About one-half the carriages have
been made in Brazil, and the balance,
with the exception of three English,
and 135 Belgian, are all of American
make. Of the broad-gauge sleeping
cars, 22 out of the 27 are of Ameri-
can type, without partitions, and the
berths arranged arranged lengthwise
along the sides, the usual car con-

taining 20 beds. The five others have
separate compartments, and are pro-
vided with 12 beds. The charge for
a lower berth is 255., and for an
upper berth ijs.

Most of the freight cars on the
broad-gauge lines carry 20 tons, and
weigh 12^ tons.

Ore is carried in 200 30-ton, and
35 45-ton waggons, of 15 and 19 tons
tare load respectively. There are 96
tubular wagons for coal, their
weight being 12 tons and their ca-
pacity 30 tons, so that the useful load
is in the same proportion as with the
45-ton manganese ore wagons.

These large capacity wagons have
been so useful that the Central Rail-
way has ordered some for the metre-
gauge lines, these being 25-ton wag-
gons, weighing 9 tons only, giving a
dead load of only 27 per cent. ; also
some of 40 tons, with only 17 per
cent, of dead weight, these latter rank-
ing among the largest wagons for
the metre gauge on record.

Practically all the locomotives
equipment has been supplied from
America, a portion by the Baldwin
Locomotive Works, and the re-
mainder by the American Locomo-
tice Company. This locomotive
equipment is distinctly American,
and has always been well up to date,
embodying many noticeable features.
The first steel tires used by the Bald-
win Locomotive Works were placed
on the first locomotives ordered for
the Dom Pedro II Railway in 1862,
and as none were made at that time

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

469

CONSOLIDATION TYPE LOCOMOTIVE, WITH SMOKE-BOX SUPERHEATER, BUILT BY THE BALDWIN LOCOMOTIVE
WORKS FOR THE CENTRAL RAILWAY OF BRAZIL, VTJG

in America, they had to be imported.
These were made with a shoulder at
one edge of the internal periphery,
and were shrunk on the wheel
centres.

In 1885 the first locomotive of the
so-called "Decapod" type, having five
pairs of driving wheels connected,
and a leading truck, was shipped to
the Dom Pedro II Railway. This
was, at the time, the most powerful
and heaviest locomotive turned out
by the Baldwin Locomotive Works.

The cylinders were 22 inches
stroke by 26 inches diameter, the
driving wheels 45 inches in diameter,
and the wheel-base 17 feet. The sec-
ond and third pairs of wheels were
not flanged, and the fourth pair was
given ^4-inch more play on the rails
than the adjacent one. This prac-
ticallv reduced the wheel base to

12 feet 8 inches, and enabled the
locomotive to pass easily curves of
500 feet radius, the rails being spread
one-half inch wider than the normal
gauge. The weight of the engine, in
working order, was 141,000 pounds,
of which 126,000 pounds were car-
ried on the drivers.

Recently the types of locomotives
have been reduced to a few standard
kinds. For passenger trains, the
American 4-4-0 locomotive, of 1897,
and the more powerful 4-6-0 type of
1902 and of 1907, are used. For
freight trains the 1897 and 1907
consolidation locomotives (2-8-0)
and the 1905 Mallet locomotives
(0-6-6-0) are employed; while for
shunting, the double-ender switch lo-
comotive of 1902 seems to be the
standard. Mogul engines (2-6-0) are
used indifferently for passenger and

iiiffii iiilir^y^^^J

~i '1

Mi3Hv

~S-^~ ^^- 'MH^

^^WwMMwwMsigBW* ■<,

— - i H^

TEN-WHEEL PASSENGER LOCOMOTIVE, WITH SCHMIDT FIRE-TUBE SUPERHEATER. BALDWIN
LOCOMOTIVE WORKS, 1907

47o

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

freight service, and an almost un-
limited variety of engine seems to be
at work.

Of the ten-wheel engines, one-half
are balanced compound engines, with
the high-pressure cylinders driving
the front axle and the low-pressure
cylinders, outside the frames, con-
nected with the second axle ; the
cranks on the same side of the loco-
motive being 1 80 degrees apart.

The other half of the engines are
of the single-expansion type, equip-
ped with Vauclain superheaters.
Both types have 68-inch drivers ; the
latter has cylinders 19 by 26 inches ;
the former 16 inches diameter by 26
inches stroke for the high-pressure
cylinders, and 26 inches by 26 inches
for the low-pressure.

The 1902 type carries a boiler pres-
sure of 180 pounds, and has 268
tubes, 2 inches in diameter, and 13
ft. 2% inches long, giving 1,840
square feet of heating surface. These
engines weigh 135,000 pounds in
working order, of which 103,000
pounds are on the drivers.

The balanced compound engines
have four tubes more of the same
diameter, but a little longer (16 ft.
1 in.) and carry 200 pounds boiler
pressure. The total heating surface
is 2,426 square feet, of which 2,290
are furnished by the tubes, and 135
by the fire-box. The grate area is in-
creased to 30 square feet, and the
total wheel-base lengthened, owing to

the longer boiler, being 25 ft. 9 in.,
as against 22 ft. 8 in. in the simple
engines. These engines weigh 167,-
640 pounds, of which 118,630 pounds
are on the driving wheels. The ten-
der carries 6,355 tons °f coal ana
11,360 gallons of water.

The principal difference between
the 1897 and the 1905 types of con-
solidation locomotives is that the lat-
ter engines are provided with Vau-
clain superheaters.

The Central Railway Company pur-
chased a number of engines from the
Brooks Works of the American Loco-
motive Company in 1894. These were
principally eight-wheel coupled goods
locomotives of the Mastodon type,
besides a number of locomotives of
the Forney type for the suburban
trains, these trains being made up of
four large first class cars of the
American type, four second class
cars, and two vans. These Forney
engines, with a six-wheel bogie under
the bunkers, have been turned into
Mogul locomotives by the addition of
a tender.

In 1897, when further power was
required for the Serra trains, the
Central Railway bought from the
American Locomotive Company the
first Mallet locomotives used in
Brazil. These engines have proved
very satisfactory, doing their work
well and being a decided advance on
the former equipment for this ser-
vice.

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF LOCOMOTIVES— CENTRAL RAILWAY OF BRAZIL.

Type

Builder

Date

Cylinders, diameter

Cylinders, stroke

Drivers, diameter

Pressure

Tubes, number

Tubes, diameter

Tubes, length

Wheel base, rigid

Wheel base, total

Weight, adhesive

Weight, total

Weight, on bogie

Weight, tender

Heating surface, firebox.,
Heating surface, tubes. . .

Heating surface, total

Grate

Tender, wheels

Tender, water

Tender, coal

Tractive power

Mallet.
0-6-6-0
Brooks.

1907

17.5 & 28

26 ins.
50 ins.

200 lbs.
234

2 ins.
18 ft.

9 ft. 9 ins.

27 ft. 8 ins.
206,000 lbs.
206,000 lbs.

98,300

121

2,195

2,316

Hauls on straight level.

lbs.
sq. ft.
sq. ft.
sq. ft.
sq. ft.

17,000 gals.
8 tons.
36,200 lbs.

5,620 tons.

Forney.
2-6-6
Brooks.
1894
18 ins.
24 ins.
62 ins.
170 lbs.
252
2 ins.
11 ft. | in.
14 ft.

21 ft. 9 in<
110,000 lbs.
126,000 lbs.
16,000 lbs.
72,000 lbs.
156 sq. ft.
1,466 sq. ft.
1.622 sq. ft.
25.7 sq.ft.
33 ins.
13,600 gals.
5 tons.
16,000 lbs.

2.470 tons.

Mastodon.
4-8-0
Brooks.
1894
21 ins.
26 ins
54 ins.
170 lbs.
248
2i ins.

13 ft. 104 ins
15 ft. 6 ins
25 ft. 3 ins
142,000 lbs.
170,000 lbs.
2S.000 lbs.
82,000 lbs.
209 sq. ft
1,991 sq. ft
2,200 sq. ft.
30.5 sq.ft.
30 ins.
15,150 gals.

7.7 tons.
28.880 lbs.

American.

Switching.

4-4-0

0-6-0

Baldwin.

1897

1902

18 ins.

16 ins.

24 ins.

22 ins.

67 ins.

44 ins.

180 lbs.

160 lbs.

219

114

2 ins.

3. 11 ft. 6 ins.

12 ft. 2 ins

8 ft. 6 ins.

9 ft 8 ins.

23 ft. i in.

17 ft. 2 ins.

63,640 lbs.

62,000 lbs.

99,740 lbs.

92,000 lbs.

36,100 lbs.

10,000 lbs.

60,000 lbs.

137 sq. ft.

86 so." ft.

1,306 sq. ft.

717 sq'. ft.

1,443 sq. ft.

803 sq. ft.

19.8 sq.ft.

13.6 sq. ft.

36.5 ins

11,356 gals.

4,550 gals.

4.535 tons

2.3 tons.

14,600 lbs.

16.400 lbs.-

2.270 tons.

2,570 tons.

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

47i

The following table gives a com-
parison of the various types of loco-
motives used on the Central lines : —

The average mileage of the broad
gauge locomotives is 24,836 miles,
and of the metre gauge engines
17,146 miles. Several engines have
run a much greater mileage ; thus
No. 207 has a record of 44,519 miles,
and No. 127 no less than 44,905
miles, but this is not to be expected
as customary on such lines as the
Central Railway of Brazil.

The following statistics relate to
the operation of locomotives on both
gauges during the year : —

Number of engine-miles run 5,786,906 1,418.951

Number of vehicle-miles 80,687,672 12,853,496

Locomotive repairs, per mile 4.57d.

Fuel consumption per engine-mile .. . 9.51d. 6.49d.

Lubricants per engine-mile 0.036d. 0.19d.

Lubricants per vehicle-mile 0.0174d. 0.174d.

Passenger traffic has already been
referred to in connection with the
suburban trains. It may be noted
that the sleeping berths produced a
revenue of £ 18,732, and that kilo-
metrical books to the extent of 364,-
375 miles were delivered. The aggre-
gate number of miles over which
passengers were carried was 279,-
628,129, earning £654,320.

The goods traffic reached 212,358,-
034 ton-miles, carried on 141,435
trains, about equally divided between
the two gauges, 50.36 per cent, being
carried on the broad gauge, 43.05
per cent, on the metre gauge, and
6.57 per cent, on the mixed gauge,
although a very different kind of
traffic is carried on the broad and the
metre-gauge lines.

Goods traffic is comparatively less
important than on most Brazilian
railways, earning approximately only
one-half of the gross receipts, this
being due to the exceptional nature
and situation of the system. The
suburban traffic, however, is not the
source of revenue generally supposed,
contributing but 13.12 per cent, of

the earnings, while 22.88 per cent, is
provided by other passengers.

The principal articles coming under
the head of goods traffic are dis-
tributed as follows : —

Per Cent.

Sugar 1 . 64

Coffee 7 . 03

Cereals 2.31

Produce 6.16

Inflammables 2 . 26

Ore 4.80

Salt 2.25

Manufactured articles 2 .98

To which should be added : —

Per Cent.

Parcels 6.00

Live stock 4 .09

Luggage 1 .52

It will be observed that no single
class of goods predominates, such as
sugar in the Northern States, and
coffee in the South. The result is a
rather poor utilization of the goods
wagons, only about 30 per cent.

The average distance traveled by
a passenger is 34.9 miles ; by an
animal, 147.5 miles ; by a ton of lug-
gage, 84.3 miles, and by a ton of
freight, 15 1.3 miles. The expenses
per ton-mile is 5s. 7785d., and per
vehicle-mile, 5.i89d.

The following table shows the per-
centages of the several items of ex-
penditure on either gauge, and on the
system : —

General charges 2.57 1.00 2.05

Traffic expenses 39.06 17.86 32.16

Accounting department 2.76 .... 2.42

Locomotive department 24.05 63.34 36.24

Waysandworks 31.56 17.80 27.13

100.00 100.00 100.00

Of the above expenses 68.70 per
cent, comes under the head of sal-
aries and 31.30 per cent, under ma-
terials.

As a government concern the pro-
portion of non-paying haulage is
high. The effective returns form
82.07 per cent, of the total, 2.06 per
cent, are "Active" receipts, and the
balance, 15.87 per cent., "service re-
ceipts."

REPORTS

By Lucien Jones, M. E.

THERE is one thing common
to all branches of engineer-
ing. No engineer is exempt,
whether he be the most inex-
perienced assistant in the office, or
the engineer-in-charge of some mam-
moth project involving the expendi-
ture of millions of dollars. There is
the everpresent liability of being
called upon to make a report to some
one about something.

In the case of the "assistant," he is
probably given very short notice, and
the report required is something of
minor importance which he is sup-
posed to know or to be able to be-
come informed about easily and
quickly. His report is usually oral,
and most often over the telephone.

The report required of the chief
engineer, however, is quite a different
affair.

He is informed some time in ad-
vance as to when he is expected to
render an account of the progress of
the undertaking, what portions of
the work he is to cover, and about
how much detail is desired in each
case.

There are as many kinds of re-
ports as there are divisions of engi-
neering, and each report may cover
only one, or a variety of subjects,
and with a greater or less degree of
completeness.

ORAL REPORTS

The one thing that determines the
value of an oral report is the fact
of the information given being ex-
actly that which was requested. Sup-
pose you send for one of your men ;
tell him to go down to Greene's De-
partment Store and find out the ca-
pacity of their large fire pump. Un-
less he is an extra good man, he is

472

very likely to return after a time
with the startling information that
"Green's have two large fire pumps.
Which one was it that you wanted to
know about?" Or that the pumps
"are 8 feet long, 6 feet high, and 4
feet wide, and stand in the northeast
corner of the engine room, near the
elevators." Also that "the engineer
has a lot of trouble with those pumps
on account of," etc., etc.

If he is a good man, endowed with
a goodly lot of common sense, he will
return with the information that,
"There are two 'Smith and Smythe'
pumps, one of 150,000 gallons, and
the other of 200,000 gallons capacity."
In a case of that kind, he would as-
sume, and rightly, too, that the in-
formation furnished was exactly
what was required.

On the other hand, if you are
sitting at your desk, and hear an un-
usually loud rumbling and thumping
noise down in the shipping depart-
ment, and send the first man down
there to find out what is making the
noise, you will probably learn that
"they are packing up a lot of stuff to
send out."

If you are really interested in
knowing what is going on, you will
send the other man. He will return
and tell you that " Wilkins has twen-
tyy-three men rushing that order of
eight thousand cans of tomatoes, 24
cans in a box, for Gardner & Grif-
fiths, Cincinnati, which must be
shipped on the New York Central's
noon fast freight to hold the order."

So that, not only must the infor-
mation given be exactly what was
requested, but, to be that, it must be
full, complete and accurate. It is
"up to" the man who makes the re-
port to decide how much, and what

REPORTS

473

information is desired, and upon his
decision rests his value to his em-
ployer.

WRITTEN REPORTS

In this discussion of written re-
ports, we will take under considera-
tion the case of the investigation of
the performance of some piece of ap-
paratus or machinery to determine
whether it fulfils the requirements set
forth by the maker or purchaser for
its operation.

The first thing for an engineer to
consider when he decides to enter
upon an investigation of this kind is
the theory upon which the design of
the machine was founded.

After he has become fully conver-
sant with this theory of design and
operation, he is ready to consider the
various methods used in testing this
particular form of apparatus.

In this age of standardization,
there are standard methods of test-
ing nearly all forms of machinery.
Purchasers of machinery specify that
it shall successfully undergo some
test prescribed by engineers of ex-
perience, who have found that a test
of that kind is sufficient to establish
the satisfactory quality of the appa-
ratus.

It is also well to consider other
existing methods of testing this form
of machine, noting wherein they are
faulty and weak, and why they have
been discarded for the "Standard
Methods."

If the device to be tested is some-
thing newly invented or very unusual,
for which no standard method of
testing is in use, the engineer in
charge must devise tests which will
be both adequate and conclusive,
without being unreasonable or unfair.

The next step to be taken is to de-
cide upon the condition and form in
which the data is to be taken and
kept. As all data taken during the
investigation are to be included in the
report, it is well to have it on sheets
of paper of the same size as the body
of the report. Therefore, the size of
the report sheets must be predeter-
mined before any data are taken.

After this has been done the en-
gineer should go over the entire
operation from beginning to end,
consider every move that is to be
made, and decide upon exactly what
observations are to be required.

Then blank forms should be made,
so complete and thorough that not one
new form will have to be made after
the test has been started, and that
every observation will have been pro-
vided for. With this done carefully,
there will be no time or observa-
tions lost during the test, as it will
be necessary simply to set down the
observations as taken in the spaces
previously laid out for them.

It is also well to note here that
under this plan everything will be
set down in exactly the place where
it is most desired, and no confusion
or searching for data can result.

The time of the day at which each
observation is made should be noted
in a column reserved for it. This
will be an important check in
case the numbering of the papers
should be wrongly done or the sheet
should become disarranged by sev-
eral men working up results together,
or in some other way.

During the progress of the test it
is better to keep all data sheets in
a loose-leaf note book with a stiff
cover, and not allow any man to
use the leaves loose.

If the data are to be copied by a
stenographer or to be worked up by
other persons than those taking the
record,- it is very important that all
figures should be carefully made and
checked for clearness. This will ap-
ply to all rough notes sent to the
stenographer. The greater part of
the report can not be dictated, as the
work is done in a noisy room. All
ambiguity should be studiously
avoided. Go on the principle that
if there is more than one interpreta-
tion possible to a figure or clause, the
wrong one always will be written by
the typist.

With the data can be included
photographs, drawings or sketches of
the apparatus used or tested, being

474

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

careful to select the view which
covers the most important side of
the machine to the best advantage.

Where delicate instruments are
used they must be calibrated ; some-
times frequently during the test,
sometimes only before and after the
test. This would include scales,
gauges, indicators, thermometers,
watches, pyromoters, anemometers,
etc.

Before the test begins it must be
decided (in making up the log
sheets) how many observations of
each instrument or condition are
necessary to obtain a reliable chron-
icle of the state of affairs through-
out. Some will vary considerably
and must be observed frequently,
while others will remain fairly con-
stant throughout the test and need
be observed only occasionally.

On the log sheets columns should
be left after some of the observa-
tion columns for "differences." By
the use of "differences" some opera-
tions can be checked as the test pro-
ceeds. This applies to such opera-
tions as measuring the rate of filling
of a tank, measuring with a hook
gauge.

Hook-Gauge

Reading

Reading,

No.

Time.

Feet.

Difference

10.30.00

3.642

10.30.30

4.108

.'466

10.31.00

4.574

.466

10.31.30

5.041

.467

10.32.00

5.507

.466

10.32.30

5.987

.480

10.33.00

6.453

.466

10.33.30

6.919

.466

In the example shown the differ-
ences are seen to be fairly constant
until the sixth reading. The man
taking this log, if he sets down his
differences as fast as he observes his
hook-gauge, cannot fail to notice that
something unusual has occurred be-
tween 10:32 and 10:32:30, and he
will immediately start to discover
the trouble.

But if differences are not used it
is very unlikely that the change
would be noticed until the results are
worked up, perhaps a week later and
a thousand miles away, and by some
one who was not there when the

log was made. In a case of this
kind there would be no hope of ever
determining the cause, and the re-
sults might be seriously affected, or
the whole test and report thrown out
on this account.

In making out the data sheets
provision should be made for keep-
ing all runs separate. Have the
data for only one run on a sheet,
unless the runs be very short, in
which case separate them by as large
a space as possible. This will greatly
assist in avoiding confusion.

All observations and results should
be checked and cross-checked to
obviate all possibility of error.

We have thus far considered the
taking of data and the actual run-
ning of the test. Now we shall look
at the form of the report itself and
what it should contain.

It should, of course, be typewrit-
ten, and should have a cover. The
size of the cover will be governed
by the size of the photographs or
blue-prints included in the report.

The first part of the report should
state to whom or for whom the re-
port is made, together with the title
of the undertaking and a short, com-
plete statement of what was done,
and the reason for doing it. For
example :

"In compliance with the request
of Messrs. Jenkins and Wilde, 308
Main street, Newark, N. J., we have
tested one Morgan & Higgins steam
turbine, located at the above named
address, to determine its steam con-
sumption and mechanical efficiency."

Then should follow a clear, con-
cise description of the method used
in conducting the test, together with
a short description, when deemed
necessary, of apparatus used which
is new or unusual.

After that it is sometimes desir-
able to explain the method of work-
ing up the data to get the final re-
sults, and the way in which the ob-
servations were checked. This will
give the person who receives the
report an idea as to the care and
thoroughness with which the test

REPORTS

475

was conducted and the amount of
reliability to place on the results ob-
tained.

The sketches and photographs be-
fore mentioned can be included at
this point in the report, followed by
blue-prints, drawings, and all log
sheets and data taken during the test
The conclusion should be the strong-
est part of the report. It should be
remembered that this is probably the
only part of the report that is
noticed by the promoter or director

to whom it is read, and who may not
have the technical knowledge to
understand the body of the report,
but who holds the purse-strings and
makes the decision.

It should be a short, complete sum-
mary of the results obtained, con-
taining all the information desired,
arranged in the best form for use.
The conclusion is that part of the
report which makes or mars the en-
gineer's reputation, for whatever is
stated there is final and stands.

PACKING MACHINERY

By S. Whettal

PACKING machinery to the best
advantage and to obtain the
lowest railway and freight-
age charges is an acquirement that
is, no doubt, neglected by many
traders. It may even be remarked
that owing to the manner in which
machinery is packed, or left un-
packed, influences the price of the
rate, and it often transpires that a
trader with a knowledge of railway
and shipping charges and an idea of
the correct method of packing goods
is in a position to obtain more bene-
fits and better rates than one who is
in ignorance of the methods of eco-
nomical and safe packing. As an
illustration of the different rates, ac-
cording to how goods are packed,
take the following:

Machinery in Parts. Packed. Not Packed.

Machinery in cases 39/4 per ton 45/6 per ton

Machinery in frames 39/4 per ton

Dynamos, in cases 39/4 per ton 45/6 per ton

Machines, fitted up 45/6 per ton 53/10 per ton

These instances are only a few out
of many, and especially when shipping
goods is it essential that care should
be taken to ensure that such goods
arrive safely at destination and at
the same time travel at the carriage
or freightage rate which is most ad-
vantageous to the owner of the
goods. The sender of the goods is,
of course, responsible for the pack-
ing of the goods, when the traffic is
intended for export, and a charge
varying from 2 per cent, to 5 per
cent is usually made for packing.
This amount pays for the great care
which has to be exercised in packing
and also pays for the value of the
empty packages themselves, which
are, of course, in the case of export
traffic, unreturnable. Some of the
packing cases used for carrying ma-
chinery abroad are worth as much as
five pounds each, so that it is only

476

reasonable that an extra charge
should be made for the extra time
taken up in packing, and also for the
value of the packages. It is essential
that every care be used by the sender
in packing, as although insurance is
often effected this will not, in many
instances, repay for the probable loss
of a possible repeat order, and al-
though economy may be effected by
a careful packer it does not signify
that it is better to send a thin pack-
ing case on account of its cheapness;
rather is it the opposite. Large ma-
chines and engines are often sent
without a case, and are merely
packed around the more fragile parts
with a protection of wood, straw
rope or old sacking. This is all right
when the traffic has not got to travel
a very long distance, but when the
goods have to travel, say, to the Far
East or to the antipodes, then it is
better to have cases or crates, the
former for preference. It is easy
to understand that the goods when
properly packed in a case are less
likely to get damaged in transit than
when sent bare. One reason for this
is that a case is more easy to sling
on board a vessel than an awkward
piece of machinery. Especially is
this so if the latter has several pro-
jecting parts which are easily liable
to be smashed when the goods are
being slung on board. Urgent traffic,
which has to travel any considerable
distance, whether on land or sea, is
better packed in a case ; not only for
better handling but also to secure,
as far as possible, that the goods may
arrive at destination in good condi-
tion. In respect to small machines
and engines it is not always needful
or necessary to take to pieces, but
the contents should be securely fas-
tened into the case to prevent any

PACKING MACHINERY

477

shifting about during transit, either
bolts or wedges may be used as is
deemed most desirable and conven-
ient. Machines or engines intended
for export are usually tested and
passed before they are handed over
to the packer along with a list of the
loose articles. This list should, of
course, tally with the articles received
to pack, and it is as well to see that
this is so, and by checking the list so
prevent any inconvenience which
might otherwise be occasioned at
destination. When machines or en-
gines are dismantled all parts should,
as far as practicable, be marked with
an initial letter or number, and those
letters or numbers should tally with
those on the blue print, which it is
advisable to forward with the ma-
chinery, when same has to be re-
constructed at ultimate destination.
A little care at the onset will prevent
many mistakes and disappointments.
Good packing may not secure a cus-
tomer, but it will often retain one.
All cases should be clearly stenciled
with stencil paint:

This Side Up with Care.

Be Careful when Slinging.

Name or Initial of Consignee and
Destination, or Mark.

Customer's Reference Number.

If more than one case — number i
upward.

Give name of Ship and Dock when
practicable.

All bright parts of engines and
machines should be smeared with
grease to prevent any possible chance
of rusting. Loose small parts should
be labeled with catalogue number,
wrapped round with oiled paper or
canvas and packed in small cardboard
boxes to go inside of case. It is most
important that great care be taken
with the labeling part of the trans-
action, as it is most unwise to cause
customer to be confused when the
goods are being reconstructed. For
machines and engines which weigh
under half a ton it is necessary that
the wood be an inch thick and of
ordinary white deal, for preference.
If over this weight, the case will re-

quire to be of greater strength and
stability and case should be strength-
ened by corner pieces and battens
across the bottom and sides. When
the cases are bolted together and the
weight is under half a ton it is usu-
ally unnecessary to protect the out-
side corners, as it is not policy to
add to the weight more than abso-
lutely necessary.

The railway charges and the ship-
ping charges on machinery are fairly
heavy in proportion to the value, and
as an instance we may take the fol-
lowing details, which do not include
insurance, dock dues or other port
charges :

Selling price of machine, %30 net.
Carriage, inland town to port:
Machine, weight in case, 12 cwt., at

17/6d. per ton 10/6d

Distance 70 miles.

Freight from English port to America:
Measurement, weight 54 cubic feet, at
40 cubic feet per ton, = 27 cwt., at
20/-d. per ton 27/0d.

Total per machine 37/6d.

When the machine is dismantled
the size of the case is, of course,
greatly diminished and in the instance
quoted above the measurement
weight would be only 20 cubic feet,
so that a saving of ij/od. on the sea
freight would be made. However, it
all depends upon the circumstances
and each individual case must be
treated on its own merits, as sometimes
it is better to dismantle, whilst in others
it is much better to send the machine
practically complete and erected. If
the machine were sent without a case
the machine weight would be reduced
by about 2 cwt., but the measurement
weight would be about the same,
therefore the only saving that would
occur would be in the transport
charges over the railway.

In conclusion it may be said that
packing goods to best advantage is
a duty that carries a certain amount
of responsibility, and it is really im-
portant that all traders should exer-
cise great care in the packing and
consigning of all goods whether for
home or abroad, as the purchaser is
usually sensible enough to appreciate
good and careful packing.

tyummt topics

THE question of fire risk doubt-
less reaches its maximum in
connection with the various
"side shows" and amusement por-
tions of great expositions, and hence
it is hardly a matter for .surprise that
this section of the Brussels Exposi-
tion, so fully described by Mr. New-
man elsewhere in this issue,/ should
have been the centre of the great
disaster which befel that undertaking.
While it is a matter for congratula-
tion that so many of the buildings,
with their priceless contents, escaped
destruction by the fire, it is indeed
a subject for regret that such great
injury was wrought in the British
section. Surely there should be a
wider separation between the valu-
able and serious portions of such an
exposition and the ephemeral and
comparatively unimportant amuse-
ment section, a space intervening,
which in itself would insure > protec-
tion from material disaster by fire.
In his paper on methods of laying
out cities, published elsewhere in this
number, Mr. Barnaby calls attention
to the important part which the pro-
vision of ample spaces plays in pre-
venting the spread of conflagrations,
and the same considerations should
prevail to a still • greater degree in
those temporary cities which spring
up around a great exhibition, and in

478

which material of immense value is
often exposed to unusual risks.

ONE of the problems often en-
countered by the engineer or
architect in the course of
preliminary work lies in the difficulty
in obtaining reliable data about ap-
parently simple subjects. This is es-
pecially true in matters relating to
the handling of numbers of people.
What, for instance, is the capacity
of a doorway ; how many people will
it permit to pass safely and comfort-
ably in an hour, and how many can
be crowded through it in an emer-
gency? What is the maximum num-
ber of people which can be accommo-
dated by a .stairway ; how many can be
accommodated upon a railway plat-
form without interfering with move-
ment ; how rapidly can passengers get
in and out of an. elevator? These
seem like simple matters, and. yet
quantitative answers to them are not
easily found, or being found, , can be
relied on. Yet they enter into the
very fundamental ; features of the
plans of great buildings, of railway
stations, of department stores. The
entrances of many such buildings are
placed, not where they will best serve
their purpose, but where they fall
into the scheme of the facade in the

CURRENT TOPICS

479

architect's design. Stairways are
made after previous examples which
have, as yet, not exhibited any ten-
dency to excessive crowding, and the
width of doorways follows precedent
to a slavish extent. The flow of
people is a matter concerning which
far less is definitely known than is
determined of the flow of water,
steam or gas ; and the engineer who
would plan a system of hydraulic
mains with as little regard for the
known laws of movement as appears
in the arrangement of passages,
stairways, entrance gates, etc., for
human molecules, would soon come
to grief.

A moderate amount of effort
should make reliable information
available upon most of these ques-
tions. The use of mechanical count-
ing devices at crowded points would
soon give information as to the ca-
pacity of the places thus observed,
and the construction of artificial con-
gestion points for the express pur-
pose of determining precise data
need not be either difficult or costly,
while the value of the information
thus obtained would prove of in-
calculable value in future design and
construction.

IN the movement of people especi-
ally does the saying "the more
haste the less speed" hold good,
and probably the worst examples of
congestion known are those which

have followed the efforts of an undi-
rected crowd to escape from danger.
Panic disasters are, unfortunately,
known in all parts of the world, but
much less is understood of the great
capacity of passengers for people
moving in orderly array at moderate
speed. The fire-drills, so admirably
conducted in many large school-
houses, are ample evidence of the
quickness with which a large build-
ing may be emptied of a large num-
ber of irresponsible children simply
by the strict observance of order and
the laws of human flow. The matter
is analogous to the handling of ma-
terial by the belt-conveyor, and the
surprise expressed by the layman,
when he is told of the large quantity
of material which is carried per hour
in the apparently insignificant stream
passing before him, would be paral-
leled by the incredulity of most per-
sons upon investigation of the ca-
pacity, for instance, of the traveling
platform, with its continuous flow at
moderate velocity. It is with people
as with inanimate matter in many
cases, the greatest obstacle to move-
ment lies in friction and in eddy cur-
rents, which consume energy without
producing useful results, and one of
the problems of the modern engineer
who is studying municipal possibili-
ties appears in the determination of
the actual conditions and of the fun-
damental data, after whch many
troublesome questions would largely
settle themselves.

IRA H. WOOLSON, E. M*

A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

IT is an encouraging development in
connection with fire-proof con-
struction that such bodies as the
Boards of Underwriters in various
places are beginning to realize that
the prevention of fire losses is an en-
gineering problem. The true way to
reduce the fire loss is to educate the
public into the fundamental principles
of fire-proof building, by the prepara-
tion of building codes for the instruc-
tion of builders and owners, and by
furnishing such engineering advice
and counsel as will enable the under-
writers to handle questions of con-
struction from the technical point of
view.

Probably no one individual has
given more attention to this most im-
portant question in the United States
than the subject of our sketch, Pro-
fessor Ira H. Woolson, until recently
adjunct professor of civil engineering
in Columbia University, New York,
and since July I, 1910, consulting en-
gineer to the National Board of Fire
Underwriters.

Professor Woolson is a native of
Niagara County, New York, and re-
ceived his. preliminary education in
the schools of Lockport, N. Y., after
which he entered Columbia Univers-
sity, working his way through college
in the face of many obstacles and
receiving the degree of engineer of
mines from the School of Mines in
1885.

After serving for one year on the
New Jersey State Geological Survey
he returned to Columbia University,
where he remained for twenty-four
years, of which five were spent in
instruction in the department of min-
ing engineering, seventeen in the de-
partment of mechanical engineering,
and two years in civil engineering.

For twenty years Professor Wool-
son was in charge of the testing lab-
oratory of the university, a depart-
ment which he developed' from small
beginnings until it became one of the

480

best-known research and commercial
laboratories in the country. For the
past ten years he has made a special
study of fire-resisting materials. In
1902 he was appointed official testing
engineer for the Bureau of Buildings
of New York City, and in the same
year he established the Columbia fire
testing station as a personal enter-
prise. Since then he has tested vast
quantities of building material of
every description, both for struc-
tural strength and for fire-resisting
properties. Most of the extensive
work of the fire-testing station has
been in co-operation with the Bureau
of Buildings in connection with its
careful investigations into fire-proof
construction, these including nearly
every variety of fire-proof construc-
tion in use in the country. The re-
ports of these tests were made with
elaborate detail.

Professor Woolson has published
a few of these reports, but a -large
number are still unpublished owing
to lack of funds for the purpose.

In 1901 he developed a standard
method for testing fire-proofed wood
and personally tested for the Bureau
of Buildings samples from many
millions of feet of lumber treated for
use in New York City.

From 1905 to 1907 he conducted
extensive research work for the
American Society for Testing Ma-
terials upon the thermal conductivity
of concrete mixtures and the effect
of heat upon their strength. The
methods and requirements for testing
building brick developed by Professor
Woolson have been extensively
adopted in testing laboratories and
cities throughout the country.

Professor Woolson is a member of
the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, of the American Society
for Testing Materials, of the Na-
tional Fire Protection Association,
and of the National Association of
Cement Users.

DR. GISBERT KAPP,

Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of Birmingham
and President of the Institution of Electrical Engineers.

See page 575

Cassier's Magazine

AN ENGINEERING MONTHLY

Vol. XXXVIII

OCTOBER, 1910

No. 6

THE ART OF LAYING OUT CITIES

By F. Bottge

IN nearly every cultured country a
movement has been noticeable for
about a decade in favour of a
somewhat radical transformation of
our cities, in accordance with new
and up-to-date principles. It is in-
deed a great problem, for city build-
ing does not mean the mere erection
of houses or paving of streets; it
comprises the laying out of an entire
city after a careful plan, taking into
account the technical, artistic, social,
economical and sanitary elements.
Germany has for some years taken a
most active part in this movement, al-
though quite remarkable achieve-
ments are also reported from other
countries. It was in Germany that,
for the first time, a public exhibition
of city building in its various forms
was held, in Dresden, 1903. This sum-
mer it was followed by another and
larger international exposition, the
Statebau Ausstellung su Berlin, 1910.
This latter exhibition has attracted
great interest, and visitors have
flocked to it from all parts of the
empire, as well as from Great Brit-
ain, France, the United States and
Japan. In many cases they came as
deputations sent by some authority or
government. In addition numerous
requests have been made to transfer
the Berlin exhibition to other cities,
but this, for various reasons, had to

be refused, except in the cases of
Diisseldorf, Antwerp and London.

The problem of municipal design
is especially difficult with large cities.
It was the magistrate of the German
capital who organized a competition,
with valuable prizes, for plans for re-
modeling and future rebuilding of
Berlin. After many of the best ar-
chitects, artists and municipal ex-
perts had worked for more than a
year, and their efforts had been ex-
amined carefully by the foremost au-
thorities in their respective lines, it
was decided to give the public an in-
sight into the important and difficult
problem of city construction by plac-
ing the best plans and prize-winning
designs on exhibition. This unique
contest of a remodeled Berlin has
been the center of attraction, and its
inspection was the more useful as the
projects shown can be in a greater
or lesser degree applied to other com-
munities as well as in Germany. Such
an exposition also shows what has
has been achieved in various coun-
tries in the numerous departments of
city building, and also what remains
still to be done. The public will thus
not only become interested, but if ca-
pable, may assist the experts and au-
thorities in their efforts. Indeed the
general interest in this important
problem is already noticeable in

6-1

483

484

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

THE BUILDINGS OF THE TRAFFIC MUSEUM AT BERLIN

periodical literature, and there are
municipal magazines in every cul-
tured country ; while in both Great
Britain and the United States papers
are published dealing exclusively
with the laying out of cities, two
such papers being published in Ger-
many. It should always be remem-
bered that the Viennese architect,
Camillo Sitte, published in 1889 the
first large book upon city construc-
tion, having made extensive studies
in various districts of Continental
Europe. Although he made a very
convincing appeal, the public and
even the city authorities were so in-
different to his ideas that no practi-
cal result of his efforts followed. The
untiring and unselfish work of a
dozen expert writers was needed to
break down the wall of ancient and
obsolete ideas. Within about a dec-
ade the movement has taken foot-
hold and a flood of pamphlets, broch-
ures, magazine articles and books
have appeared in nearly all countries.
To these must be added the various
competitions, of which the above-

mentioned is the greatest. In short,
the laying out of cities is being con-
ceived in a growing measure as a
scientific problem.

The meaning of such competitions
is profound. We obtain thus a large
amount of material for the prepa-
ration of a town for the coming cen-
turies, including a good transit sys-
tem, the developing of its architect-
ural appearance, improving the con-
ditions for building, its elements, and
making it healthful and generally
more suitable for living in.

Every large city is surrounded by
numerous suburbs, and these are
mostly selfish enough to strive for
their own extension, against the in-
terests of neighbouring communities
and of the main city. The result of
such proceedings, of which I could
give numerous examples, is an un-
pleasing picture of a huge area of
built-up blocks without any fixed
plan. We all should try to break up
this mistaken idea, and in the Ber-
lin exhibition the various communi-
ties adjoininng the capital are taught

LAYING OUT CITIES

485

a lesson and given excellent plans,
showing how to build-up their vacant
land to meet the various modern re-
quirements. All such smaller com-
munities should bear in mind that
their future is secured only if they no
longer go their own ways, but unite
themselves with the projects of the
large city adjoining them. Then
only it is possible to produce a pleas-
ing picture of the whole combination
and to provide a good transportation
between the suburbs themselves and
the central city.

As regards streets, we observe that
most of them in Europe are curved
and rather narrow. It is true that
this form offers an attractive sight,
and the thousands of foreigners
passing through old German towns
are delighted about the picturesque
character of them. On the other
hand, they are a drawback to a good
transit system and to modern sanita-
tion, and a movement is now notice-
able to make the thoroughfares
straight. No sensible person would

of course adopt the plan of
some American cities, where the plan
looks like a monotonottSvjchessboard,
extremely ugly, built by speculators
and not by artists. The German
plan is to combine the good elements
of both systems, making the
streets straight and broad; but, in
order to meet aesthetic requirements,
to interrupt the rows of average
houses by some monumental build-
ing or small park, square, statue or
arch ; also by varying the street
crossings, making some closer and
some wider apart. Consequently we
obtain an effective perspective in
looking along even such a perfectly
straight road. This arrangement op-
poses no difficulty for sewer con-
struction or any kind of transporta-
tion.

Another lesson can be taken from
German methods as regards width of
streets. In the inner sections of
towns, some of which are many cen-
turies old, one naturally finds many
narrow streets, but whenever a new

DIAGRAMS SHOWING TRAFFIC OF THE LARGEST CITIES OF THE WORLD

486

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

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MODEL SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF THE KONIGSPLATZ AT BERLIN, WITH THE BRANDENBURG GATE AND

PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS

street is laid out, ground of sufficient
width is purchased by the community
as will suffice for the next ioo years,
taking into account increase of traf-
fic. This seems for the first years
like an extravagance to purchase more
property than is immediately need-
ed, but in practice this is not true,

for the street is laid out with a width
at first required, as well as the side-
walks, while the remaining ground is
rented to the houseowners to be
utilised for front gardens. This
method is required by law, otherwise
they, the owners, could not obtain the
license for building, and by this

MODEL OF THE KRUPP COLONY AT ESSEN

LAYING OUT CITIES

487

EXHIBIT OF MODERN WALL FOUNTAINS

method the city administration re-
ceives a considerable sum for this ap-
parently waste space. The roads
thus look pretty, and the ground is
available at any time whenever in-
crease of traffic requires widening of
streets. In England and other con-
servative countries the property is
bought of a width sufficient for pres-
ent needs, and when, several years
later, the thoroughfare has to be wid-
ened, additional space must be pur-
chased at an excessive cost, as in the
meantime the value of property has
greatly increased. Many improve-
ments can be made by making a new
street in a densely built-up quarter,
but this should not be done after the
example of the newer . Paris boule-
vards ploughing through the city ;
they should be adapted to the archi-
tectural situations and provide effect-
ive perspectives and good outlines. Of
course the cutting through of new
streets costs enormous sums, but it will
always repay, and in this respect
American communities have done
good work in recent years, spending

many millions in this direction. For
civic improvements New York has
expended $85,000,000 and Chicago,
for its beautiful park system alone,
$20,000,000. Much can be done in
beautifying the banks of a river,
when it passes through a town, by
providing driveways such as the
Thames embankment in London, in-
stead of placing dirty factories along
the banks. There should be a strict
separation between the business
houses, the industrial and residential
districts, the former being in the
inner city. All these should be sur-
rounded by a green belt of grass and
trees, as is in the Austrian capital.
However, it is not recommended to
make these green areas like a closed
geometrical ring, since this would
make an extension of the built-up
portions difficult and be a hindrance
to transportation, but they should
surround the town in irregular
groups, intersecting the solid district
in a pleasant way and allowing ex-
tension and transportation.

The green spots' within the city

488

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

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MODEL OF THE CITY OF VIENNA

itself are also important; they are
the lungs of the community. Prob-
ably the best improvements have in
recent years been made by American
towns, plans of which occupied a
whole room in the Berlin exposition.
There were fine plans, sketches and
photographs of Chicago, New York,
Boston and Washington ; showing
parks with their swimming and row-
ing ponds, libraries, drilling halls,
playing fields and wading pools for
little children, which latter have so
much pleased the Berlin magistrate
that similar ones will now be built in
that city. We were pleased to see
the beautiful surroundings in which
American colleges are often located ;
this cannot be effected for those in
Europe, as the latter are far older
and space is much more scarce than
in the new world. To the department
of the sanitary side of city planning
belongs a movement which was
originated in Great Britain and is
still there best developed — the garden
city. These occupied a whole room
in the Berlin show; pretty pictures

and plans of Letchworth, Port Sun-
light and others being on view. But
Germany can also boast of having
some very up-to-date garden cities,
the oldest ones being the workmen
colonies of the famous Krupp Works
at Essen. That firm owns nearly the
whole town, employing tens of
thousands of workmen and officials,
for whom not only residences are
provided, but also shops, stores, li-
braries, hotels, restaurants, churches
and the like. Some of these colonies
are modeled after the English cot-
tage system, some in the form of
two- story flats. Everywhere in Ger-
many we observe the intention to dis-
pense with narrow courts and air-
shafts, of which the worst in any
city are in the tenement quarters of
New York. In the Berlin exhibition
were shown fine examples of large
garden courts, obtained by putting
the many smaller ones together,
these, of course, being intended for
more than one building. By this
method the unpleasant rear houses
and side wings can also be avoided,

LAYING OUT CITIES

489

and it is possible by these large
courts, and by introducing private
passages, to have every house facing
a thoroughfare. Thus light and air
finds ready access to the residences,
as well as to industrial localities, and
as most of these open spaces are cul-
tivated, there is brought some bit of
nature into the stone desert of a
town.

Much attention is now paid in pro-
gressive countries to transportation,
since we have at last learned to see
its importance. In the Berlin exposi-
tion several rooms were devoted to
this department, and many systems
were represented: among others the

Metropolitan in Paris, the various
underground lines of London and the
numerous surface and elevated rail-
ways of the large American cities, of
which an immense model, showing
the wonderful subway system of New
York, should be mentioned. Dia-
grams show that ring-railways sel-
dom yield a good profit, but radial
lines reaching out to the business cen-
ters were preferable ; and furthermore
that underground lines are permissi-
ble only within a city proper, as
the immense cost of construction
would render them unprofitable be-
yond the city borders where traffic is
smaller.

PROTECTIVE APPLIANCES IN COTTON MILLS

By H. M. Crawford

CONSIDERABLE impetus has
been given to the process of
ring-spinning by the erection,
during recent years, of some of the
largest cotton factories in Great Bri-
tain devoted entirely to the manufac-
ture of ring-spun yarn. Just to men-
tion a few, we have the Valley Ring
Mill (50,000 spindles), Union Ring-
Mill (46,000), Era Mill (63,600),
and Dale Mill (70,000) at Rochdale.
Regent Mill (50,000) at Failsworth
(Fig. 1.) ; Cromer Mill (61,000) at
Middleton (Fig. 2), and Nile Mill
(94,000) at Hollinwood (Fig. 3).

For a long period there was a
decided preference for mule-spinning
in regard to both weft and twist, and
mule-spinning was not by any means
confined to finer counts. Manufactur-
ers were naturally cautious at dis-

placing the mule, which had for a
century given such uniformly good
results, in favour of a type of ma-
chine which had presented many dif-
ficulties. Yet it was generally con-
ceded that the ring-frame had a pros-
perous career ahead. Its main prin-
ciples were as firmly established as
cotton spinning itself. The old
spinning-wheel of the 18th centurv
(Fig.4)is an embodiment of its main
characteristics. In this machine the
bobbin was placed in a horizontal
spindle, and while it revolved in re-
sponse to the motion of the treadle,
a "flyer" was put into operation for
the purpose of building the thread
on the bobbin. All this was periecx-
ly simple. And when Richard Ark-
wright, long before he attained his
great eminence, conceived the idea of

FIG. 1. REGENT MILL, FAILSWORTH, DURING CONSTRUCTION

490

PROTECTIVE APPLIANCES

491

FIG. 2. CROMER MILL, MIDDLETON ; IN LARGE SHED ON GROUND FLOOR

his water-frame he based his inven-
tion on the "old wheel" with the
difference that he erected his bobbins
on vertical spindles (Fig. 5). He still
retained the flyers, and made his

great fortunes at Cromford and
Manchester by the aid of this simple
adaptation. Then the water-frame
had perforce to bow to the trend of
the progressive age, and up sprang

FIG. 3. NILE MILL, HOLLINWOOD

492

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 4. EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY SPINNING WHEEL,

WITH HORIZONTAL SPINDLE AND FLYER

the throstle frame which captured
the North of England as if by storm.
Still the throstle retained the flyer
and the upright spindle, but instead
of a crude array of cog-wheels and
straps for turning the draftrollers
and spindles, it contained a large
revolving tin-cylinder under the ma-
chine. This, connected with the
wharves of the spindles, would drive
both sides of the machine uniformly;
and instead of the spindles being
driven in sets of four, the new ar-
rangement would operate the whole
length of the frame. The throstle
was an immense improvement on the
best of Arkwright's inventions, and
for fifty years at least held its own
for coarse counts among the cotton
mills of Lancashire and Cheshire.
That it had defects — serious ones as
the demand of the times proved —
was too well known. It could not
produce sufficient in quantity ; it re-
quired much expediture of labour;
its wear-and-tear was considerable ;
its speed was necessarily limited, as
any great velocity of the flyers caus-
ed these to expand, collide and frac-
ture. Besides, a considerable amount
of floor-space was taken up to allow
for flyers alone. Obviously these
were in the way ; and inventive
genius was steadily forging ahead in

England and in the United States
with view to another means of build-
ing the cop than by flyers. The ring
frame is the result of these experi-
ments, and considering the fact that
over a million ring spindles are in
operation in England alone, it is evi-
dent that ring spinning is now on
its forward march to industrial
prosperity.

It may be asked "what is the ope-
ration of the ring frame as now em-
ployed?" The answer can be sum-
marized briefly. Bobbins of loose
yarn are received from the roving
frames and erected in the double
shelves of the creel (Fig. 6). For
this purpose a cylindrical wooden
skewer is thrust through the core of
the bobbin; the top of the skewer
perforates the top creel-board, and
the base of the skewer rests loosely
in a shallow cup of earthenware sunk
into the lower creel-board. The bob-
bin is now free to revolve as the yarn
is gently drawn from it by the action
of the machine. The yarn is now
passed between pairs of draft-rollers
which, running at different velocities,
slightly attenuate the yarn as it runs
through. Each thread is then passed
through a spiral wire, also through
a small loop or "traveller" of wire
(Fig. 7). This loop is free to move
round a steel "ring" fixed in the ring-
rail which extends from end to end
of the machine. The ring-rail rises
and falls; and as the thread passes

FIG. 5. ARKWRIGHT S WATER FRAME. FROM HIS

CROMFORD MILL

PROTECTIVE APPLIANCES

493

FIG. 6. ERECTING BOBBINS IN THE CREEL

through the wire-loop attached to
each ring, the ring-rail takes the
place of the rising-and-falling bob-
bins on the old throstle machine.
The ring-frame bobbin or cop is on
a stationary base. The rising-and-
falling ring builds the yarn. The
flyer is abrogated entirely. Greater
speeds, too, are possible. While the
throstle was limited to 5000 revolu-
tions per minute, present-day ring-
frames make up to 10,000 revolutions
per minute.

These frames are used for produc-
ing either twist or weft; whereas the
throstle manufactured generally hard
twist for warps, hosiery, lace and

sewing-cotton. Twist is spun on
bobbins ; and weft on wooden pirns
or paper tubes ready for the shuttles
at the loom. The counts spun on
ring frames generally range between
20's and 50's, that is, from 20 to 50
hanks of 840 yards to the pound
avoirdupois.

When the cops are completed the
ring-rail is lowered to its limit ; and
a few turns of the spindles wind the
yarn on the bases of these ready for
the new cop. The finished cops are
removed or "doffed", fresh pirns are
fitted to the spindles and the machine
is re-started. Without any piecing
whatever the threads immediately

494

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 7. THREADING THROUGH WIRE LOOP ON RING RAIL

wind on the new pirns and spinning
proceeds anew.

This cycle of operations has, in
process of time, disclosed serious
risks to the operatives who are
almost entirely composed of women
and girls. And were it not that stre-
nuous efforts have been made by
machinists to eliminate these risks
the casualty roll of the ring-frame
would have been more alarming. The
cog-wheel gearing of the earliest
frames was too dangerously exposed,
particularly when workers performed

some portion of their cleaning with
the machines in motion. It frequent-
ly happened that workers' fingers
were trapped not from cleaning dan-
gerous wheels, but from cleaning
stationary parts of the machine in
close proximity to such wheels. In
moving the cleaning-waste or cloth
about, it was suddenly nipped up by
the intake of the wheels ; and as the
operative's hand held the cloth firmly
the hand itself was dragged into the
wheels before the victim could realize
the injury inflicted. The whole hand

PROTECTIVE APPLIANCES

495

FIG. 8. STARTING A RING FRAME BY HANDLE

has been lost in cases of this charac-
ter.

The starting-rod, too, was inconti-
nently near to the toothed wheels.
In the modern machine this handle is
placed outside the frame altogether
(Fig. 8) so that the operative's hand
is perfectly safe. This is an import-
ant factor in the construction of the
machine. In ring-rooms which were
indifferently lighted workers had to
he exceedingly careful in re-starting
frames when the handle was in a

dark shadow,
end (Fig. 9)
the locus of its
Here the toothed
and formidable ;

Doubtless the gearing
of the ring-frame is

gravest dangers.

wheels are exact
otherwise thev

would be unsuited to the exact work
they have to perform. These wheel-
trains are concerned with the efficien-
cv of the draft-rollers, and the revo-
lution of the tin rollers under the
frame which determine the velocity
of the spindles. Formerly the wheels
were almost entirely uncovered; just

496

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 9. GEAR WHEELS AT END OF RING FRAME

a strip of fencing over the upper
peripheries was all the safety provid-
ed. The sequence was a profusion
of severe accidents. Fig. 10 shows
the pair of levered guards now pro-
vided. Each is furnished with a lift-
ing knob for use when inspecting
the parts concerned while the ma-
chine is stationary. These guards
are svmmetricrl and cover effectively

the upper portion of the gearing:
the lower portion is completely
shielded by wrought-iron plates.
These plates cannot be dissociated or
laid aside inadvertently and forgot-
ten ; they are fitted to the frame of
the machine and screwed firmly into
position. Here also the driving-
strap and pulley of the frame are
located. These parts always demand

PROTECTIVE APPLIANCES

497

extra care when women's skirts are
frequently passing. It is not un-
common for workers to be trapped
between driving-straps and pulleys
where these are unduly exposed ; and
such accidents are generally severe.
To obviate these casualties the driv-
ing part of the ring-frame has been
cased round (Fig. n) so that
neither straps, driving-ropes nor pul-

from driving-straps and ropes thus
shielded are seldom heard of. The
casing does not in the least deter
from the practical working or effi-
ciency of the machine ; and the
worker is moreover inspired with
greater confidence as she follows the
course of her employment.

A wheel which has in time past
been intimately connected with severe

FIG. 10. LEVERED GUARDS FOR GEARING OF RING FRAME

leys can come into conflict with oper-
atives' clothing.

Where rope-driving is in vogue
this safeguard is especially useful
(Fig. 12). It prevents all rough or
frayed strands doing damage to the
workers should they perchance slip
on the oily floor, or wheel round the
machine in too close proximity.
Ropes running on grooved pulleys
have an inherent faculty for carry-
ing all before them ; arms and fingers
would present very feeble barriers.
The utility of this close casing tells
its own pleasant story ; accidents

accidents is that which engages the
draft-roller pinions at A in Fig.
13. It is near the front of the
machine, where the operatives' fingers
are often busy threading or piecing
the yarn. For this carrier to be un-
covered would be a serious omission.
It has, therefore, a substantial
wrought-iron guard fitted and bolted
to the fixed part of the machine. It
cannot be merely lifted out of its
position ; nothing will remove it
short of the overlooker's spanner
when he desires to change the
amount of attenuation in the yarn.

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498

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 11. COMPLETE CASING AROUND END OF RING FRAME

This carrier is screened from the
operative, whether she be piecing
yarn or cleaning; all admission to its
teeth is completely barred.

The wharves of the spindles are
turned by bands (Fig. 14) mounted
on a pair of tin-rollers, about 8-inch
in diameter, placed between the rov-
ing-bobbins and the floor. These
rollers are continuous from end to

end of the frame and are separate
from each other one or two inches ;
as a rule they revolve in opposite
directions and gather in on the under
side. Each spindle-band after leav-
ing the wharve passes over the top
of the near roller, under the farther
roller, and returns over the top of
the farther roller to the wharve. The
reason for this arrangement is to

PROTECTIVE APPLIANCES

499

FIG. 12. HEADSTOCK OF RING FRAME WITHOUT GUARDS

ensure the band passing round the
wharve in a horizontal position.
When one roller only was used there
was great difficulty in keeping the
bands on the wharves of the spindles;
if the upper band were horizontal the
lower one was at such an acute angle
as to render permanent working well-
nigh impossible.

But the substitution of two driv-

ing-
dangerous

rollers for one created a very
risk which was scarcely
anticipated. Up to recent years it
has been a common practice to thread
spindle-bands while the machine is
in motion, not of course all the bands
on 400 spindles, but such as have
snapped in the process of spinning.
The general rule now is to stop the
machine during this threading opera-

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 13. GEAR GUARDS, WITH CARRIER WHEEL IN A

tion as it is necessary for the hands
to work near the danger zone, i. e.,
where the rollers in-gather. Even
when the band is threaded through
by means of a wire hook, there is
danger when feeling for the loose
end of the band while the machine
is running.

A case in point may be cited which
demonstrates the danger in a some-
what curious way. When a girl-
tender was helping to thread the
spindles she saw the loose end of the
band suspended between the rollers
but could not reach it from the front
of the machine. The moment she,
quite innocently, went under to reach
the band a silken ribbon used for
tying up her hair was seized by run-
ing bands, the machine being in mo-
tion, and both hair and head were
taken up between the rollers. The
seizing power of these rollers is enor-
mous ; and it is scarcely possible for
limbs to escape when once within
their grip. The physical injury
sustained is unusually severe, if not
fatal. In other instances a hand has
been lost while cleaning near the
end of the rollers. Here a binding
flange brings the peripheries slightly
nearer than the rollers themselves.
The cleaning cloth was caught up,
and the hand followed involving
total loss. Further, the cost of such
accidents is no trifling matter. When
a girl's right arm became involved
in these rollers and had to be am-
putated, the compensation settlement
amounted to more than three

hundred pounds. Obviously the
protection of such parts of a
machine is in the best interests
of employers and employed. To
the former it saves time, untold
worry, and heavy expenditure; for
none can have a greater abhorrence
to the injury of his workers than the
employer. Besides, there may be
substantial increase of insurance pre-
miums where serious accidents hap-
pen involving large sums of money..
To keep premiums at a low ebb there
is nothing like prevention of indus-
trial accidents. And this becomes
increasingly momentous when insur-
ance companies include in their
policies certain conditions as to com-
pliance with statutory requirements
in regard to safety appliances. If A.
B. desires to insure, he will probably
discover that an insurance officer
may desire to examine his plant to
ascertain how far protection is af-
forded to the workers.

Ring-frame rollers should certainly
not be approached when in motion.
The risk has, to some extent, been
mitigated by running both rollers in
the same, instead of the opposite
direction. By this method while one
roller tends to draw in, the twin
roller throws out any conflicting
limb. Another plan, common in
India and Continental countries, is to
attach an iron rail the full length of
the machine midway between the
poker-rail and the floor. This pre-
vents any "ducking under" the frame,
and renders it impossible for piecers

FIG. 14. DRIVING BANDS ON TIN ROLLERS ON ^J

RING FRAME

PROTECTIVE APPLIANCES

501

FIG. 15. OVERHEAD PULLEYS FOR DRIVING RING FRAME

to reach the intake of the rollers.
The open ends of ring frames should
he completely closed by iron or
^lanished-steel plates. This is done
very effectively on all modern ma-
chines ; older frames have merely a
small iron tongue alongside the end
of the rollers. This is quite inade-
quate when girls are cleaning adja-
cent parts.

Driving by ropes is a system which
is gaining headway in ring-spinning.
It promotes a steadier drive than
leather belts, and is more easily con-
trolled in case of lagging. Also
there is less liability to sudden frac-
ture than in the case of straps. Long
before a driving-rope breaks it shows
unmistakable signs of dissolution by
fraying. Good splicing ensures the

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 16. GUARDS OVER GEARING OF RING DOUBLING FRAME

constant wear of a driving-rope for
an indefinite period. Grooved gal-
lows-pulleys (Fig. 15) are fixed im-
mediately over the driving pulleys of
the machines, and in case of slacken-
ing of the ropes these may be easily
adjusted by the hand-wheel until the
rope attains a permanent setting.
There is little probability of these
ropes jumping the grooves of the

gallows-pulleys ; when unshipped
they rest on the side hangers provid-
ed on the brackets.

Ring-doubling is a process follow-
ing on ring-spinning, and is very
similar in some of its operations. The
ring-doubling frame (Fig. 16) does
not "spin" in the ordinary meaning
of the term ; it twists two or more
spun threads into one. It deals with

PROTECTIVE APPLIANCES

503

FIG. 17. WHEEL TRAINS OF RING DOUBLING FRAME

cops, bobbins or pirns from the spin-
ning frames, and has but one cylin-
drical tin-roller for driving the
wharves of the spindles. It has no
draft for attenuating the threads;
one set of heavy rollers draws the
threads from the cops or bobbins,
they are then twisted by the revolu-
tion of the spindles and wound, as in
the rinef-sninning frame, by the trav-
eling loop on the ring-rail which

rises and falls. The mechanism of
the ring-doubler embraces very im-
portant trains of cog-wheels (Fig.
17) which would, if uncovered, be
fraught with serious risk to the oper-
atives. Complete shield-plates are
provided leaving only apertures for
oiling: and where inspection is some-
times necessary levered covers em-
brace the dangerous wheels. The
strap-forks are not intended to be

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 18. COTTON TWINER WITH COPS ON SKEWERS

FIG. 19. CHAIN WHEEL ON TWINER HEADSTOCK

PROTECTIVE APPLIANCES

5°5

FIG. 21. SWING-DOOR GUARD OVER RIM PULLEY AND PLATE GUARD TO DRIVING BELT

handled. The operating handle is
placed, as a rule, some distance from
the fork and connected with it by a
bevelled rod and worm-wheel. By
this means greater safety is ensured
to the worker who is able to move
the powerful strap is ensured to the
worker who is able to move the
powerful strap without risk. It will
be further noticed that driving-pul-

leys are now faced solid, instead of
being "spoked." Many casualties
have occurred from hands and brush-
es being entangled in the arms of
such wheels when revolving at high
speeds near the floor.

Doubling is also performed by
means of the twiner (Fig. 18) in
which ring bobbins or cops are erect-
ed on skewers placed on a movable

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 22. CAST-IRON GUARD OVER RIM PULLEY

carriage. As a rule two threads are
combined as in the ring-doubler, but
on occasions three or four threads
may be combined to form one spec-
ially strong thread for hard textile
fabrics. And although ring-doubling
holds priority as a combination pro-
cess, twining is likely to hold its
own place for a long period as a
producer of warp-yarn. In some re-

spects it resembles the self-acting
mule ; but the traversing carriage
which moves to and fro over a
space of 60 to 72 inches bears the
creel of cop-threads which are to be
twisted ; while the spindles with fin-
ished cops are erected on a fixed
frame at the back of the machine.
For half a century twiners have been
running practically without safety-

PROTECTIVE APPLIANCES

507

FIG. 23. PLATE GUARD OVER FRONT RIM PULLEY

guards ; but the occurrence of many
severe accidents has led to the adop-
tion of protective means, so that ma-
chinists and owners of twining mills
have raised the factor of safety
quite recently. The seat of greatest
danger is in the headstock, which lies
low near the centre of the machine
and in the area of employment, so

that workers are constantly passing"
and repassing. Dangerous cog-
wheels run within the headstock
frame, and pulleys at the side or
in front make over 700 revolutions
per minute. It will be clear that if
operatives — chiefly girls and women
— slip and fall on these parts severe
injury is likely to . ensue. In this

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 20. RIM PULLEY ON HEADSTOCK OF TWINER

FIG. 24. WOODEN CASINGS OVER TWINER HEADSTOCKS

PROTECTIVE APPLIANCES

5°9

FIG. 25. TWINER CARRIAGE WHEEL AND GUARD

manner fingers and portions of hands
have been so badly mutilated as to
require amputation.

Of the two sides of this headstock,
the right (Fig. 19) is the less vul-
nerable. Here the chain-wheel re-
volves slowly and protects somewhat
from the more dangerous parts be-
yond. But the left side (Fig. 20)
often contains the rim-pulley, close to

the floor and revolving at high speed-
Fractured fingers and arms have
come from collision with the spokes
of these wheels. Guards are now
fitted to old and new twiners, and
such casualties are rendered impos-
sible.

A simple and effective form of
guard is shown in Fig. 21 on an old
twiner. The owner was desirous of

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 26. TWINER CARRIAGE WITH WHEELS INSIDE COP CREEL

FIG. 27. GUARDS OVER CARRIAGE WHEELS ON END FRAME OF TWINER

PROTECTIVE APPLIANCES

FIG. 28. FALLER HAMMER OF TWINER, AT POINT OF PENCIL

FIG. 29. FALLER HAMMER AND GUARD COMBINED TO PREVENT FINGERS BEING UNDER THE HAMMER

512

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 30. CUT-OUT IN CREEL OF TWINER (CLOSE TO PILLAR)

saving his operatives from injury as
far as practicable, and of minimizing
his own risk under the Compensation
Acts. He therefore planned his own
guards and had them constructed to
his own specifications. A fixed por-
tion of the guard is attached to the
floor-plate under the headstock
frame ; to this a swing-door is
hinged and secured by means of a
strong wire hook. The guard is firm
and reliable, and covers the wheel
entirely. New machines have their
rim-pulleys guarded completely with
cast-iron plates specially fitted (Fig.
22). With this type of twiner the
main driving-belt is much exposed
and liable to inflict injury; to ob-
viate this substantial belt-guards are
erected (Fig. 21) of planished steel-

plates with flanges fixed to the
headstock frame by stays of rod-
iron.

When the rim-pulley is in the im-
mediate front of the headstock (Fig.
23) the danger is increased. The in-
cidence of accidents has demonstrated
this. Cast-iron guards are now made
which cover the whole surface of the
pulley, and allow of easy removal for
repairs or inspection purposes. Ex-
pense is sometimes urged against the
general provision of guards. Even
this may be moderated by adopting
guards of wood (Fig. 24) made by
the mechanic at the owner's mill.
These are simple, effective and
portable.

Next to headstocks the carriage-
wheels do most physical damage.

PROTECTIVE APPLIANCES

513

These often project from the tra-
versing carriage (Fig. 25) and run
on steel rods or "slips"; the wheels
are grooved to run on the edge of
the slip, and no quarter is given if
any finger should perchance come
into contact with the wheel where it
impinges on the slip. The carriage
is heavy and the wheels destructive.
An efficient remedy has been devised
in the wheel-guard illustrated, which
is merely laid on the slip while the
wheel itself is lowered into its hollow
cavity. The guard then travels to
and fro propelled by the wheel. In
some twiners (Fig. 26) provision has
been made for these carriage-wheels
under the cop-creel. They are then
protected by the front creel-rails,
which prevent any approach of work-
ers' fingers.

Each twiner has a pair of car-
riage wheels running on the end of
the machine-frame (Fig. 27). These
being so proximate to passageways,
should necessarily be well guarded.
For this purpose specially-fitted
guards are made of cast-iron, pol-
ished and fixed on the axles of the
wheels. By their action any hand
resting on the frame-end is pushed
aside without injury. Faller-ham-
mers (Fig. 28) are either covered
with hoods or bent round (Fig. 29)
in the form of an irregular circle, so
that hammer and guard are combined
in the same fitting.

Pillars in the central line of the

jenny-gate — the space between the
pair of twiners — have often been a
source of trouble to mill-occupiers
and operatives. The twiner-car-
riages in moving outward, come
close to, or within an inch or two, of
these pillars. Women and girls
have suffered, in consequence, not
merely an involuntary squeeze, but
serious injury, from the close and
sudden impact. So important did
this risk become that it is now re-
quired by legal enactment that in new
mills the outrunning carriages must
not come within 18 inches of a fixed
pillar. But the difficulty still arises in
mills constructed 30 to 50 years ago,
and to minimise it a portion of the
front of the carriage has been cut
out (Fig. 30) and levered with
springs attached for practical work-
ing with safety. The operation of
this cut-out is beautifully simple, and
eliminates the likelihood of "traps."
If an operative should be caught
against the pillar while piecing
threads, the front of the cut-out im-
mediately bends in, the operative is
not crushed, and as the carriage
moves back the springs bring the
front of the cut-out into line with
the rest of the creel.

Ring-spinning, doubling and twin-
ing are indispensable processes in the
cotton industry, and safe-guarding
the workers in these processes is one
of the employer's most valuable as-
sets.

6 3

THE MECHANISM OF RIVER BEDS

By V. Lofchtine

II. THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES.

(Concluded from the September issue.)

WE have now discussed the
general conditions of equi-
librium in rivers of mod-
erate slope in resistent beds. The
only force which a river possesses to
relieve its bed from the deposits
which encumber it, is its slope, and
if the average slope is unable to at-
tack the obstruction to advantage the
river economises it, so to speak, by
concentrating it first upon one portion
and then upon another. During per-
iods of high water the fall is con-
centrated in the deep places to clear
away their deposits, and during per-
iods of low water it accumulates in
the shallows to remove the material
which has been left there at high
water, when the force of the current
was insufficient to move it. Thus the
various parts of the river, both deep
and shallow, are indispensable instru-
ments in the work of moving the de-
posits, and these different portions
have their fixed limits, and constant
positions, determined by the local
properties of the bed.

The conclusions which have been
already enunciated as following
naturally and logically from the local
mechanical conditions of a river bed,
are fully confirmed by the observa-
tions which have been made upon the
same subject. We have already re-
ferred to the longitudinal profile,
very instructive for our purpose, of
the noted shallows of the Volga, the
"Teliatchy Brod," which, according
to all historical records, has existed
from time immemorial at the same
place, about ten versts below Nijni-
Novgorod. In times of low water
these shallows have a total fall of
6.58 feet in a length of 12 miles
which corresponds to a slope of 0.55

foot per mile; this is twice as great
as the average ot the Volga in the vi-
cinity, which is only 0.2667 foot per
mile. We see by the profile, that as
the water level begins to rise, the
steep slope begins to diminish, and
when the level of the water reaches
34.16 feet above zero, the slope is
only 0.1165 foot per mile. When
the high water attains a level of 40.6
feet above zero, the slope falls to
0.087 f°ot Per mile, or only about
one-third the average slope of the
river.

It is self-evident that with such a
small slope the surface of this por-
tion of the Volga presents the ap-
pearance of a great lake, extending
far beyond its banks, and becoming
a place for the deposit of a great
quantity of suspended matter, which
by its accumluation produces a reduc-
tion in depth above, causing an in-
crease in the slope at low water.

This mechanical action of shallow
and deep portions may be observed
very clearly upon the examination of
entire sections of various rivers. We
may illustrate this point very clearly
by the example of the River Ga-
ronne, already cited. In the accom-
panying table (Table III), compiled
by M. Baumgarten himself, it ap-
pears that at low water the deep
parts of the portion under considera-
tion have an average slope of 0.0119
metre per kilometre, while the slope
in the shallows at the same period is
1.020 metre, almost nine times that
of the deep parts, and four times
that of the average slope of the en-
tire portion. With regard to the
slopes in the deep and shallow por-
tions during periods of high water,
these are not given by M. Baumgar-

MECHANISM OF RIVER BEDS

515

TABLE III.

Slopes nof the Deep and Shallow Portions of the Garonne Below Its Confluence with the Lot.
(According to M. Baumgarten. Ann. des ponts et chaussees 1848.)
Shallows. Depths.
Fall. Slopes per Kilometre. Fall. Slopes per Kilometre-
Kilo- At Low At High At Low At High At Low At High At Low At High
metres. Lengths. Water. Water. Water. Water. Lengths. Water. Water. Water. Water.
Kim. Metres. Metres. Metres. Metres.

7.294 0.862 .... 0.118

54.50

.68

.16

76.50

85.

86.25

89.52

.65

104

105

106

107

110.35

1.172

0.773

0.928

0.509

0.270

0.429

0.130

2.173

.500

0.754

8.411

1.370

0.62

0.563

0.15

0.633

0.03

0.532

0.24

0.732

0.18

0.532

0.943

0.13

0.203

0.04

1.610

0.26

0.780

0.04

0.677

0.07

1.168

0.728

0.817

0.573

1.438

1.970

2.200

1.560

0.741

1.560

0.897

8.575

1.840

Mean.
1.020

0.528

0.194

0.038

0.258

0.353

0.296

0 305

0.307

0.119

0.080

0.093

Mean.
0.219

4.570

2.545

4.990

2.405

4.690

1.472

3.255

5.299

7.279

1.716

2.884
47.499

0.273

1.12

0.197

0.48

0.395

0.357

0.55

0.721

0.90

0.221

0.37

0.411

0.99

0.210

1.435

2.17

0.098

0.62

0.483
5.663

0.058

0.077

0.079

0.149

0.154

0.150

0.126

0 040

0.197

0 057

10 560

0.167

Mean.
0.119

0.245

0.188

0.336

0.229

0.192

0.251

0.304

0.317

0.298

0.061

Mean.
0.261

ten in his table, and we have been
obliged to determine them from the
longitudinal profile; the results are
given in a special column of the
table. It appears that in the shal-
lows cited by M. Baumgarten, which
present such steep slopes at low
water, the slope diminishes at high
water to an average of 0.219 metre
per kilometre, which is lower than
the average for the entire portion
of the river under consideration
(0.2546 metre per kilometre). In the
deep parts, on the contrary, the slope,
which is small at low water, reaches
0.261 metre per kilometre at high
water, being increased about two and
one-half times.

This profile is remarkable in that
it furnishes evidence of the cause of
the arrangement of shallows which
results in the reduction of slope in
the shallow portion itself and an in-
crease of slope in the part imme-
diately following. It is surprising
that M. Baumgarten, who has given
us such a complete analysis of the
longitudinal profile of the Garonne,
should have stated that at high water
the slope always approached the
average, and failed to observe such
an evident circumstance.

This fact is, above all, essential,

because the moment a diminution of
the slope appears this latter cannot
be caused by the natural conditions
of the main bed of the river, nor by
the secondary bed, which itself is
formed by the high water and is
the result of the energy of its cur-
rents. Herein appears the cause of
an insufficient analysis of this ques-
tion in the investigations of M. M.
Fargue and Dubois, so remarkable in
all other points.

If one is unable to explain the for-
mation of river beds, it is because
one has examined only the minor or
secondary bed, and sought, by the an-
alysis of its curves, currents, etc., to
discover the causes of its formation,
a proceeding which has led M. Du-
bois to avow that it was impossible
for him to study the effects of high
water upon the shallows.

There is yet another type of river
with a resistent bed. of which an-
other example has already been cited,
the Dniester, of which both the bed
and the banks have a high degree
of resistance, the stream being di-
vided into clearly defined portions of
depths and shallows succeeding each
other. It is possible in this river to
observe the division of work in the
transportation of sediment which oc-

5*6

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

curs in the displacement of the
slopes of the deeper portions of the
shallows and vice-versa, with the fall
and rise of the water.

In fact almost two-thirds of the
portion under examination, about 133
miles in length below Mohilev, pre-
sents regular and deep sections, with
a tranquil current and an average
slope of 0.45 foot per mile at low
water, while the remaining third con-
sists of shallows with a rapid cur-
rent and an average slope of 2.34
feet per mile at low water.

At high water, as on the Garonne,
this distribution of slopes is changed,
and in the deep portions it rises to
1.12 feet per mile, while in the shal-
lows it drops to an average of 0.882
foot per mile; these figures show
again the action of a succession of
depths and shallows which is charac-
teristic of rivers having resistent
beds.

We believe it to be unnecessary to
multiply examples, or to compare the
slopes of different portions of various
rivers, indicating the manner in
which equilibrium is established be-
tween the comparatively feeble cur-
rent and the relatively high resistance
of the bed.

As a matter of fact, in the literature
of hydraulics there are to be found
very few longitudinal profiles of
rivers given with sufficient detail at
high and low water to be available
for the question in which we are in-
terested, and still fewer in which the
data are so given that we can sepa-
rate the slopes at low and high water.

It would even suffice to have the
longitudinal profile at low water,
and if this profile presented the form
of a sort of stairway by reason of
its succession of steep and moderate
slopes, this fact alone would indicate
the insufficiency of the slope as op-
posed to the resistance of the de-
posits and furnish the distinctive
characteristic, classifying the stream
among those possessing a resistent
bed. In any case, without again cit-
ing the profiles of rivers in the same
category, we may pass to the second

property due to the same insufficient
slope — the periodical deposit of sedi-
ment upon the shallows, due to di-
minution in the velocity at these
points during periods of high water.
This phenomenon is a logical se-
quence of the reasoning already
given upon the properties of longi-
tudinal profiles, that the displace-
ment of slopes should be confirmed
by direct observations if the conclu-
sions were correct. As a matter of
fact, the inhabitants have observed,
upon many rivers, that during the
periods of high water the shallows
become obstructed with sediment, and
that they cleared themselves and be-
came deeper during low water, even
during the continuation of low-water
periods. Examples are known where
in certain shallows, after a sud-
den fall from high water, the bed
was found so obstruced with material
deposited when the level was high
that navigation was interrupted un-
til sufficient time had elapsed for the
low-water current to displace the de-
posits.

Nevertheless, although isolated and
wholly characteristic examples of this
sort have been observed for a long
time, the phenomenon has not been
studied as a whole until recently,
when a very practical reason has di-
rected attention to the question. This
reason was the results of the action
of the barrages, or movable dams,
erected on the Volga for the deepen-
ing of the shallow portions. In order
to obtain an understanding of these
results, by no means satisfactory, it
has been necessary to investigate
whether the deepening of the shal-
lows observed in certain cases dur-
ing low water was due to natural
causes or was effected by the dams.
With this end in view, the engineer,
Makarov, undertook a detailed study
by making a simultaneous compari-
son between the levels of the water
and the depths of the shallows.

Briefly, M. Makarov gathered the
facts relating to 75 shallows on the
Volga, from June 1 to October 1, for
five years. He prepared 350 dia-

MECHANISM OF RIVER BEDS

517

grams which showed the changes in
the level of the bottom of the shallows
with respect to the level of the water.
It is unnecessary for us to cite here
all the figures and diagrams of M.
Makarov, and we must refer those
who are interested to the original
work; we believe it will amply suffice
to give the conclusions of the whole
study, which demonstrate positively
our supposition of the periodical ob-
struction of the shallows, indicating
the remarkable constancy with which
the bottom of the river rises and
falls with the rise and fall of the
water. We may remark that the
data concerning the depths at the
shallows given in the investigation of
M. Makarov are taken from the re-
ports made by the official observers
stationed at these points. These re-
ports are worthy of entire confidence,
on account of their importance in
connection with the control which they
exercise over the navigation of the
river. As regards the oscillations of
the surface of the water, a direct meas-
urement was made only as the scale
at the shallow of Kouchnikovo ; at all
other points, owing to the absence
of a hydrometric scale, it was neces-
sary to resort to interpolation between
•the heights noted at the two neigh-
bouring scales. The small errors in-
evitable in interpolations of this sort
were doubtless counterbalanced by
the number of the observations and
could alter the conclusions only from
a quantitative point of view, without
affecting the general principle in
which we are interested. Further, at
the shallows of Ourakovo, where
there is a hydrometric scale, there ap-
pears the same fact of the elevation
and depression of the bed with the
rise and fall of the water level.

Nevertheless, to remove still fur-
ther this possible source of error, 12
hydrometric scales were installed in
1894 directly at the shallows, thus
making it possible to follow directly
the variations in the level of the
water as well as of the bottom. The
results of these records are given in
the accompanying diagrams, giving

even more positive evidence than the
observations of M. Makarov. We
may draw the same conclusions from
these diagrams, and perceive the re-
markable parallelism between the
curve of variations in water level
and those of the bed of the stream.

These observations of 1894, as well
as those of M. Makarov, were made
at a time when the level of the water
varied between comparatively nar-
row limits, not nearly approaching
the highest level of the Volga. In
fact, we believe that it would be ex-
tremely difficult to measure the depth
of water over the shallows at that
period. In consequence, the fact of
the periodical diminution in depth
cannot be attributed to the deposits
of sediment made at high water, and
the following explanation becomes
necessary :

When the water rises, the sand de-
posited on the shallow is submerged,
and the current flowing over these
deposits follows a more direct line
than during periods of low water,
when the sand-bar is filled with ir-
regular channels which have cut their
way through. However this may be,
and although such observations are
necessarily limited, in the present in-
stance, for the oscillations of the
Volga during the summer season,
they show, nevertheless, that the sand
is brought by the current from above,
down upon the shallows during the
period of rise of the water level, and
that it is carried on farther down
the stream as the high water sub-
sides, showing that mechanism of
the shallows in a river with a fixed
bed is as we have already indicated.

Returning now to the question how
rivers of moderate slope and fixed and
resistant beds attain a condition of
equilibrium and prevent their corn-
complete obstruction by deposits of
sediment, we may draw the direct
conclusion that this equilibrium is ob-
tained by the temporary concentra-
tion of the slope at the point where
it is most necessary during the mo-
mentary level of the water.

The constancy of. the position of

5i*

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

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DIAGRAMS SHOWING THE RELATION BETWEEN FLOOD LEVELS AND BOTTOM CHANGES IN SHALLOWS OF THE VOLGA

shallows, which do not shift their
places, the sharp division between
shallows and depths, the staircase
form of the profile of the river, the
displacement of the steepest slopes
from the shallows to the deeper por-
tions during the rise of the water,
and the inverse phenomenon during
the fall in level — these are the char-
acteristic traits of rivers with resist-
ant beds, and such are the conditions
of their immutable existence in the
state of equilibrium which they have

attained during a long period of cen-
turies.

Let us now suppose that the gen-
eral slope of the river increases and
that the resistance of its bed remains
unchanged (the action would be
more marked if the resistance di-
minished).

Under such circumstances the clear
and sharply defined character pos-
sessed by the stream would grad-
ually become changed. Its shallows
would become less pronounced at low

MECHANISM OF RIVER BEDS

519

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DIAGRAMS SHOWING THE RELATION BETWEEN FLOOD LEVELS AND BOTTOM CHANGES IN SHALLOWS OF THE VOLGA

water, their position would become
less stable, temporary sand-bars
would be produced here and there,
according to circumstances ; the river,
considered as a whole, would lose
its fixed character and become more
mobile, and its longitudinal profile,
both at high and at low water, would
lose more and more its resemblance
to a stairway.

Upon the supposition of an in-
creasing augmentation of the slope,
or of a slower diminution in the re-

sistance of the bed, all these proper-
ties would become more pronounced,
and there would ultimately be
reached a point at which the slope
would become equal or superior to
that necessary to maintain the con-
tinued support of the entrained ma-
terial. It will then no longer be neces-
sary for it to make periodical de-
posits of sediment because of ina-
bility to sustain the entrained mat-
ter. From this moment the condi-
tion of the river passes from that of

520

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

THE AMU-DARIA AT THE CROSSING OF THE TRANS-CASPIAN RAILWAY, SHOWING ITS CONDITION IN 1888

stable equilibrium to one of unstable
equilibrium. This state is charac-
terised by the preponderance of the
excess energy of the current, which
has a force capable of carrying
along with it all obstacles encoun-
tered in the movement of the water,
without the necessity for the con-
centration of its power for this pur-
pose at any particular points in the
profile. At the same time the local
conditions which, in rivers having a
resistant bed, cause a definite distri-
bution of steep and moderate slopes
at high water, no longer play such a
part. With the preponderance of

the force of the current, and with
a bed of insufficient resistance, the
least concentration or augmentation of
the slope causes a solution of the
earth so rapid and energetic that the
eddies thus accidentally formed are
almost immediately destroyed, and
the slope re-established.

Apart from any local and acci-
dental increase, the average and uni-
form slope along the entire length,
steeper than that which is consistent
with a state of equilibrium of the
river-bed, while at the same time the
least slope possible under the condi-
tions produces at high water such

CHANGES IN THE AMOU-DARIA IN 1S89

MECHANISM OF RIVER BEDS

521

CHANCES IN THE AMOU-DARIA IN 1890

a great velocity that the flow of the
stream is necessarily accompanied
with a destruction of the bed and the
banks, and continuous erosion of the
entire surface of the bed.

It is in this expenditure of the ex-
cess energy, and in the removal of
the products of this destructive ac-
tion, that Nature finds the means of
arriving at equilibrium in such a case.
The current demolishes a tongue of
land at one point to form another
somewhere else; it cuts down one
bank to increase another; it cuts for
itself a new path and establishes a
new bed to abandon the old one,

which becomes rapidly filled up.
As an example of such action let
us take four illustrations of the plan
of the Amou-Daria and the point
where it is crossed by the Trans-Cas-
pian Railway. The plans represent
the situation in four consecutive years,
and the contours of the river and its
branches appear in such different po-
sitions that it seems almost impossible
that they belong to the same river.
Such a plan of a river having a bed of
low resistance and excessive variation
is the natural consequence of a current
too powerful for the resistance of
the valley. Equilibrium can be es-

CHANGES IN THE AMOU-DARIA IN 1891

522

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

tablished only by the continual con-
test of the banks with the current, at
the expense of the displacement of
the course of the stream along its
length. The only possible state of
equilibrium in such a case lies in the
dynamic changes in the bed ; the only
possible form of longitudinal profile

Distance from Name of Locality Pieces of More

Austrian Frontier, from which Sample than 0.2 cc.

Miles. was taken. Per Cent.

1.30 Ivanetz 64.30

30.00 Oustie 43.00

172.00 Soroki 63.45

240.00 Kamenka 55.46

250.00 Erjev 47.16

is that of a straight line of uniform
slope of fewest inflexions, and of an
essentially temporary character,
caused by the eddies due to the
material deposited by the high
water following rapid subsidence,
only to be formed again in a dif-
ferent shape at some other point.

These conditions of current in a
bed of low resistance may be ex-
pressed in figures, if we are com-
paring two rivers of different char-
acter. Let us take, for example, the
Dniester and the Vistula, which have
their origin near each other on the
watershed of the northern Carpa-
thians, and flow, one northward to the
Baltic, and the other to the south-
west of the Black Sea. These rivers,
as we shall see, possess in their nat-
ural condition very different charac-
teristics.

The Dniester, as we have already
seen, has in its upper portion an
average slope of 0.99 foot per mile,
and during periods of low water it
presents a succession of tranquil
depths occupying about two-thirds of
the length of the river, separated by
shallows with rapid currents having
average slopes of about 2.31 feet per
mile, and attaining, in some cases,
slopes as hieh as 7.35; feet per mile.
Such high slopes at low water, and
consequent velocities of 3 to 7 feet
per second, necessarily act, as has
already been shown, to remove the
deposits from the shallows. These
deposits consist of a mixture of sand,
mud and coarse gravel ; some pieces

of the latter reaching a size of 5 to
10 inches, and having an average
size of 1 to 4 cubic centimetres, as
shown in the accompanying table.
These sizes have been determined by
the direct measurement of a num-
ber of samples taken from a consid-
erable quantity of the deposit:

Sand, Mud, etc.,

Spec.

Mean Wt.,

Mean Vol.

Grav.

Grammes.

Cubic Cm,

35.70

2.60

4.27

2.77

57.00

2.15

8.66

4.03

36.55

2.43

6.59

2.70

44.54

2.56

4.03

1.57

52.84

2.53

2.66

1.05

We thus have the distinctive char-
acteristics of the Dniester; an aver-
age slope of 0.99 foot per mile, and a
bed consisting of gravel of 1 to 4 cubic
centimetres.

Let us now examine the compari-
son of the bed of the Vistula. The
slope of the course of the stream in
Russia is 1.55 foot per mile; that is
about one and a half times that of
the Dniester, while the sediment, in
place of coarse gravel, consists of
mud and fine sand, of which the par-
ticles, measured by a method de-
scribed hereafter, do not exceed 1-16
of a centimeter in diameter.

With a slope sufficiently steep to
produce currents having velocities
of 3 to 4 feet per second at low
water and as swift as 7 feet at high
water, on one part; and with ma-
terial sufficiently fine, on the other,
there is no question of any particu-
lar stability of the bed, of any divis-
ion of the stream into deep and shal-
low portions, of any stairway longi-
tudinal profile, nor of any local in-
crease in slope, becoming necessary
for the transport of material. Under
such circumstances the entire bed
presents the aspect of a continuous
obstruction, continually being re-
moved and displaced by the excessive
force of the current. The whole
river appears as a wandering stream
of uniform slope, and with a con-
tinually varying depth.

Such are the solutions which are
presented by Nature in the two ex-
treme cases, that of a small slope and

MECHANISM OF RIVER BEDS

523

a resistant bed ; and that of a steep
slope and a bed of insufficient resist-
ance.

It will be apparent that in the pre-
ceding examination, we have taken,
for the sake of simplicity, the two ex-
treme cases and types of equilibrium,
and that between these there may be
interpolated all other types of rivers
characterised to a greater or less de-
gree by fixed or varying beds. The
classification of a river into one or
the other of these categories, very im-
portant, as perceived, from a hydro-
technic point of view, can be made
only after a critical study of its
longitudinal profile and of the ma-
terials which it carries in suspension.

Unfortunately the present condi-
tion of the science of hydraulics does
not permit us to translate the move-
ment of water in rivers into precise
formulas, and if we attempt to use
this method in the present case, it is
only because we desire to exhibit the
correlations which we have estab-
lished, and not to attempt the deduc-
tion of any numerical results.

Let us suppose that each particle
of entrained material has the form
of a sphere (in reality it approaches
an ellipsoidal form, the measurement
of a large number of particles giving
the relation of diameters of I : 1.64 :
2.43) ; also let d be its diameter, /
its coefficient of friction, zv the
weight of a unit of volume, and p
the resistance which the particle op-
poses to movement ; we then have :

ird3

p = f w

6
and if we designate by c, the product
of the constant factors, we have :
p = cx dB.
We also have acting upon this ele-
ment the pressure P of the moving
water equal to

V2 ird2

P — W . ,

2g 4
in which W is the weight of a unit
of volume of water, and V the ve-
locity of its motion. We may remark
here that we must not commit the

error of taking for the value of the
velocity that obtained in the river
after it has surmounted all the re-
sistances of its bed, and given by the
formula

V = k V r i

as a function of the slope and the
wetted perimeter.

If we imagine two water courses,
identical in all particulars except that
the bed of one is covered with a layer
of sediment, while the bed of the
other, while of exactly the same
form and dimensions, is entirely
smooth, the minimum velocity in the
first of these currents will be the re-
sultant of the force expended in
overcoming the resistance of the sedi-
ment and entraining it. These re-
sistances are included in the formula
V = k^/ r i under the form of the
coefficient of friction of the water
against the bottom and the wetted
perimeter and by the introduction of
the slope in place of the total head
which causes the velocity of the ac-
celerated movement of the water
along the river. The problem in
the present case consists in express-
ing the properties of the river to the
extent to which it carries the sus-
pended material ; this is, therefore,
not the definite velocity finally pro-
duced in the bed and determined by
the preceding formula, and which is
that of the mass of water traversing
the portion under consideration.

Rather is it the kinetic energy ex-
pended per unit of length, determ-
ined by the total fall of the river
upon this portion and given by the
formula :

V = V 2 g h

If this result is relatively too great
for the resistance of the material, the
bed will be subjected to a continual
destruction, while in the contrary
case it will be more or less perma-
nent. If we substitute in the ex-
presssion for P the value of V =
2 g h, collecting- all the constant fac-
tors under a single expression c2, we
shall have

P = c2h dz,

524

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

and comparing this value with that
of p, we have :

p d

= C ,

P h

from which we see that the fixity of
the bed is directly proportional to the
linear dimensions of the elements of
the deposits, and inversely propor-
tional to the slope.

In order to arrive at an idea of the
comparative properties of rivers from
the point of view of the fixity of
the bed, we have collected samples of
deposits from a number of streams,
and to determine the average dimen-
sions of their elements we have
caused them to be passed successively
through four sieves, of which the
meshes were %, y$, 1/16 and 1/30
of a centimetre. In this manner each
sample was divided into five portions,
of which we knew the average di-
mensions, and by taking the weights
of each of the portions, we were able
to determine their relative propor-
tions. The values of the dimensions
thus obtained are given in Table IV.
The slopes have been taken in part
from the collection published by M.
Tillo, and partly from other mono-
graphs, and this enables the charac-
ter of each portion of the river to be
given with reference to the average
slope. By dividing the linear dimen-
sion of the elements of the deposit by
the slope, we arrive at the figures
given in the last column, which may
serve as a measure of the relative
fixity of the bed of the river.

According to the results thus ob-
tained, the Vistula has the least stable
bed, and then follow, in the order
named, with increasing resistance, the
western Bug, the Pina, the Pripet,
the Dneiper and the Don; and even
this last has a bed of very low re-
sistance. The Volga shows a bed of
much greater resistance, as indicated
by the data already given, showing
the deposits in the shallows during
periods of high water; then follow in
the same order, the Niemen, the
western Dwina. and finally the most
permanent, the Dneister.

As we have already stated, the
more resistant the bed of a river, the
more definitely the staircase form of
profile appears, in consequence of the
intermittent action of greater or
lesser slopes, and because of the
varying distribution according to the
level of the surface of the water.
On the contrary, the weaker the na-
ture of the bed, the more uniform the
slopes become, showing only partial
oscillations and an uncertain form.
It would be very instructive to be
able to place the longitudinal pro-
files of the several rivers under con-
sideration in parallel position for
comparison, together with the co-
efficients of stability obtained as in-
dicated in the table. Unfortunately,
this is not practicable, since the data
available for the slopes are very gen-
eral in character and relate to vari-
ous water-levels, the points having
been taken almost haphazard, with-
out system, in such a manner as to
render it impossible to classify the
slopes of portions having different
characteristics. Under such condi-
tions the profiles have a tendency to
become uniform, and the local
changes in slope, essential for our
purpose, become indistinguishable.

We may, however, cite the longi-
tudinal profile of the Dneister as
characterising the properties of a
river with a highly resistant bed, as
already indicated by the description
of its slopes on the curves, as well as
the depths and shallows at high and
low water. We have also cited the
profile of the shallow "Teliatchi
Brod," on the Volga, which shows
very clearly the increase in the slope
at low water, and its diminution dur-
ing flood. Similar evidence appears
in the profile of another portion of
the Volga, near Poutchege, in which
the record of high levels was pre-
pared especially for this study, in
1893. In this portion of the river
there are four shallows, those at
Kosten, Yatchmen, Pestoff and Pere-
lom, in which the current is very
rapid at low water. The total fall
is 9.10 feet in a length of 22.4 miles,

MECHANISM OF RIVER BEDS

525

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526

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

that is 0.40 foot per mile (the aver-
age slope of the entire section is
0.276 foot per mile) ; at high water
this total fall is only 4.13 feet, a re-
duction of more than one and a half
times, which corresponds to only
0.183 foot per mile. At the same
time, for the five intermediate deep
portions there is, at low water, a to-
tal fall of 3.15 feet upon a cumu-
lative length of 21.6 miles, giving a
slope of 0.145 foot per mile, while at
high water this fall is increased to
6.44 feet, giving a mean slope of
0.296 foot per mile, or more than
the average for the entire section.

These facts are in entire accord-
ance with the conclusions drawn as
to the fixity of the Volga. So far as
rivers with beds of small resistance
and varying beds are concerned, al-
though detailed profiles are lacking,
we believe that the fact of the uni-
formity of their slopes, together with
the small variations from the mean
slope, usually due to accidental
causes, is clearly shown by such ex-
amples as the Vistula.

The engineers in charge of the
rectification of this river have the
intention of making an entire trans-
formation in its profile, giving it
the regular form of a parabola.

Another conclusion to be drawn
from the table is the appreciable in-
crease in fixity of the bed at points
where rectification works have been
executed. Thus, on the Vistula, at
Ivangorod, where the river remains
in its natural condition, the coefficient
of fixity is equal to 3.70; at Warsaw,
where improvement works have been
executed, it rises to 4.20. On the
Dnieper at Glebvoka the coefficient is
only 4.84, while in the vicinity of
improvement works it is 8.38 at Kre-
mentchoug, 9.36 at Ekaterinoslav,
and 12.0 at Kieff. In the same man-
ner the Pripet, in its natural state at
Pina, has a coefficient of 5.96, and at
Mozyr 7.35, while in the improved
section at Tchernobyl the coefficient
rises to 13.21. It is evident that the
contraction of the bed causes the re-
moval of the finer portions of the

material, while the larger particles
remain behind, and this fact is also
demonstrated by the examination of
the selected samples. We may note
that in general the elements of a de-
posit are of different dimensions, ac-
cording as they are found in tranquil
or rapid waters. Thus samples may
be taken from different portions of
the same sand-bar, beginning at the
head, situated in the direction of the
current and ending at the tail-end,
where the water leaves it. Such a
series of samples will exhibit very
clearly the gradual transition from the
coarse particles at the beginning to
the fine sand and mud at the end.
But the point in which we are es-
pecially interested is the resistance of
the bed to the destructive force of the
water, determined by its physical con-
stiution; it is the deposits of the
coarser material which characterise
one or another river, and not the
finer matter and mud. We make this
remark because it is only from sam-
ples selected with this precaution
which furnish information of value
for the comparison of the stability of
different rivers ; besides this it is nec-
essary that samples should be col-
lected in sufficient quantity to enable
the particular character of the de-
posits of a river to be determined
with proper degree of precision.

For this reason the accompanying
table for coefficients of fixity of cer-
tain rivers must not be accepted as
finally determinate, as we were not
able to secure a sufficiently large
number of samples to secure this.
In publishing it as an example we
may observe, however, that the
method possesses great simplicity,
and that it is most desirable that
specialists engaged in work upon va-
rious rivers should collect the ma-
terial necessary for further research.

We have indicated the method of
finding the coefficient of fixity of a
river, but we may also remark that
the relation between the size of the
elements of the deposit and the slope
of the stream does not exhaust all
the conditions.

MECHANISM OF RIVER BEDS

527

The bed of a stream consists, not
only of a bottom, covered with de-
posit, but also of the banks, and their
resistance exerts a greater or less in-
fluence upon the relative permanence.
It would be very interesting to intro-
duce this factor into the coefficient
of fixity, comparing the relative re-
sistance of the layers of which the
banks are composed, but the absence
of observations upon this subject ren-
ders this impossible. Another cir-
cumstance which doubtless plays an
important part in the phenomena of
the changes in river beds is the du-
ration of the action of strong cur-
rents; it is evident that the action of
a current during a period of fifteen
days in one case and two months in
another must be different for the two
cases.

There is also a considerable influ-
ence in the manner in which floods
are formed, as well as in the rela-
tion between the kinetic energy of
the high and low waters, besides the
formation and movement of ice, the
condition of the banks, and a num-
ber of other elements, which we have
been compelled to omit in comparing
the permanence of various rivers.
Each of these factors naturally bears
its part in influencing the natural
condition of rivers, complicating the
character and rendering the distinct-
ive characteristics the resultant of
the action of a number of causes.
However this may be, in the united
action of these diverse causes, the
constant and preponderating influ-
ences are those of the slope of the
river and the properties of the ma-
terial of which the bed is composed.
As we have already seen, it is the
relation between these two factors
which determines the position of any
river among others, giving it its dis-
tinctive properties.

Without considering further the
conditions which complicate the phe-
nomena indicated, we will close with
some general conclusions drawn from
the theory set forth from the point
of view of the possible improvement
of water courses.

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528

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

It is well understood that the con-
traction of the width of a river has
the effect of deepening the bed. For
this reason the portion to be deep-
ened is walled in by a system of
dikes, reducing the width of the
current and increasing the velocity
by reason of the holding back of the
water above. The current thus pro-
duced scours up the material de-
posited between the dikes and car-
ries it further downstream, thus pro-
ducing a deepening of the bed. If
the river belongs to the type having
a resistant bed, in which the works
have been executed along a shallow
portion, and if the improvements are
continued far enough down, the ma-
terial picked up by the current will
be carried along and deposited in the
next deep portion, where the stronger
slope at the following period of high
water will produce the natural en-
trainment of these deposits, according
to the mutual action of shallows and
depths which we have already ex-
plained. But if the river belongs to
the wandering type, which, because
of the slope being too strong for the
bed, does not possess clearly defined
deep and shallow portions, the de-
posits formed immediately below the
works will not coincide with any nat-
ural reinforcement of the slope, and
because their moderate prominence is
unable to produce the reaction neces-
sary to reinforce the current, they
will remain in position. Thus the ef-
fect of the works will be merely the
displacement of the bar to a point
lower down the stream. It will then
be necessary to continue the improve-
ments still further down, and thus
keep the deposits moving along until
the whole portion of the river under
consideration has been included. Of
the two essential factors of such a
river, its slope and the resistance of
its bed, the former has a much
stronger influence than the latter,
and one which it is absolutely impos-
sible to change ; the engineer is
therefore able to adopt only one
method to obtain a more favorable
state of equilibrium, the increase in

the resistance of the bed. This is
accomplished by providing artificial
banks of high resistance, and by en-
couraging, by an increase in the ve-
locity of the water, the removal of
the softer deposits, leaving the
coarser portions behind. These facts
are proved by the notable increase in
the values of the coefficients of fixity
in the improved portions of the
rivers in the table.

A complete change in the nature
of the river; reduction as much as
possible in the influence of the ex-
cessive slope for the bed, by render-
ing it absolutely uniform throughout
the entire length of the stream with-
out local increase above this mean ;
that is, the production of the mini-
mum possible slope on the one part,
and the artificial increase in the re-
sistance of the bed over its entire
length on the other part, these are
the logical conclusions which follow
a rational investigaion of the possi-
ble amelioration of the wandering
type, and it is under this form that
further applications should be made.

Let us pass to the case of a river
possessed of permanence, due to the
resistance of the material of which its
bed is composed, and to its moderate
slope. We will suppose that the
same method of improvement is ap-
plied to a river of this type, and that
it has been so modified along its en-
tire course that it has been given a
regular profile and a normal width.
A river thus improved will no longer
maintain its tranquil depths nor its
rapid shallows, nor the staircase
form of profile, with its succession of
large and small slopes; the entire bed
will have the character of a uniform
canal, of uniform width, uniform
mean slope, and of uniform velocity
of current.

But we have already observed that
the distinctive character of a river
with resistant bed lies in its division
into sections having alternate steep
and moderate slopes, this being the
indispensable condition of equilib-
rium between the motive power of
the water and the resistance of the de-

MECHANISM OF RIVER BEDS

529

posits. We have also seen that the
deposits on the shallows were the re-
sult of the action of high water,
which, at certain localities, in conse-
quence of various causes, mostly inal-
terable and dependent upon geo-
graphical conditions, became retarded
in movement and encouraged the set-
tling of the material, until it was
again loosened and moved on by the
swifter current at low water. It thus
appears that shallows are indispensa-
ble instruments in the work of en-
trainment of deposits, and that the
steep slopes of low water are the only
methods by which the work is ac-
complished. If, then, we suppress
these shallows with their rapid cur-
rents, and produce a uniform bed
with its uniform velocity, correspond-
ing with the average slope, this ve-
locity, giving the mean and constant
action along the whole course of the
stream, will be much inferior to that
which the river formerly possessed,
and which was proportioned to the
resistance of the deposits. The cur-
rent will thus be unable to carry on
down the stream the material de-
posited each time by the high waters,
and it will necessarily accumulate in
the vicinity of the former shallows,
and thus, little by little, the former
profile of the river will be re-estab-
lished. Let us recall the data and
slopes and velocities of current in the
example of a river with a resistant
bed, the Dniester. In its present con-
dition there exists in the shallows ve-
locities of current of 5 to 7 feet per
second, and even with these velocities
the bottom, which consists of coarse
gravel, remains in invariable condi-
tion, neither deepening nor filling up ;
we thus conclude that these values of
velocity and slope are indispensable
for a bed of this character. If now,
we should give the Dniester, through-
out its whole course, the uniform mean
slope of 0.000289, the velocity of the
current would fall to less than 2 feet
per second. It is evident that with
such a bed, and with deposits requir-
ing velocities of 5 to 7 feet for
their displacement, a current of not
6-4

more than 2 feet per second would
not suffice to maintain a durable bed,
and the river would gradually revert
to its former condition.

This reasoning proves that while
the method of improvement of a
channel along its entire length is
the rational and only practical one
for a river with a wandering bed, it
is inapplicable and even injurious in
the opposite case of a stream with a
resistant bed.

The conservation of equilibrium es-
tablished by Nature, by means of the
division of the work of entrainment
of deposits between periods of high
and low water; the study of longi-
tudinal profiles corresponding to dif-
ferent levels of water; the classifica-
tio of rivers into sections with rein-
forced slope during periods of high
water, in which the bed is conse-
quently free from obstructions and
which would remain after improve-
ment in their natural state, and into
sections of lower slope during the
same period, in which the bed is sub-
ject to the accumulation of deposits;;
the study of the mechanism of each
shallow, so far as concerns the pro-
vision of energy stored up for use
during low water, and the use made
of it; the study of the disposition of
sand-bars and of currents ; and,
finally, the most rational and eco-
nomical utilization of the kinetic en-
ergy and the corresponding rectifica-
tion of the length of the bed included
between two depths situated above
and below a shallow ; these are the
elements of a proper method for
determining the solution of the prob-
lem of the improvement of rivers of
this type.

We shall not enter into the details
of this subject; they belong rather to
a treatise upon the special art of im-
provement of river beds, and we
shall confine ourselves to a few re-
marks directly suggested by the ideas
above mentioned. We have already
said that if, in executing improve-
ment works upon a shallow in a
river of the type having a fixed bed,
the works are pushed down to the

53°

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

junction with the lower depth, the
accumulated velocity produced at this
point during- high water will move
the deposits which the current at low
water had displaced beyond the shal-
lows. It thus appears that, according
to the mechanical conditions of the
movement of water alone in a given
channel, the limit of extension of im-
provement works should be con-
trolled by the length of the shallow,
so that they should not reach the
following deep portion.

In actual practice, if a permanent
deepening of a certain amount is to
be obtained, it must not be forgot-
ten that the removal of deposits from
the shallows during low water re-
quires a certain amount of time, and
if this is not given the deposits may
accumulate and bar the navigable
channel. The fact is known that
shallows become unnavigable when
the level of the water falls very rap-
idly after a flood, while, on the con-
trary, a slow falling of the water-
level produces an arrangement of de-
posits favourable to navigation. If,
however, we change artificially the
natural conditions of a shallow, and
increase the velocity of the current
at low water, we increase the force
which acts to entrain the deposits
down the stream to points below the
limit of the shallow ; we thus in-
crease the possibility of their tem-
porary accumulation at the transition
point between the shallow and the
following deep portion. If the por-
tion thus situated in the immediate
vicinity of the shallow is very deep,
the material thus brought down will
find a lodging-place without interfer-
ing with navigation. This fact ex-
plains the satisfactory results which
sometimes follow improvement works
of this kind. But if the passage
from the shallow to the deep portion
is not abrupt, but has a sort of trans-
ition character, the deposits coming
down with force from the improved
shallow may obstruct this inter-
mediate portion of the bed, and ne-
cessitate a still further extension of
the works.

Occurrences of this kind, frequent
enough in practice, have given rise
to doubts among engineers as to the
possibility of the improvement of a
limited portion of a river, whatever
be its character, and have had much
to do with the application to rivers
of all kinds of the method of im-
provement along the entire length,
without considering the contradic-
tions which are sometimes involved.

However this may be, it logically
follows, from a consideration of the
phenomena of the movement of
water and the deposits of solid ma-
terial, as well as from the facts
observed in connection with prac-
tical improvement works, that the
most delicate point to be considered
in deepening the bed lies in the por-
tion connecting the lower part of the
shallow with the upper part of the
following depth. In order to avoid
misunderstandings, it is necessary to
give some attention to this point.
In this case it is desirable to utilise
to the best possible advantage the
current existing during low-water in
connection with the natural slope cor-
responding to that period ; we thus
enter into the field of considera-
tions upon the correlation existing
between the secondary beds of rivers
and the conditions of uniform move-
ment, a study which is rich in varied
and numerous investigations. These
studies, incapable of serving in the
investigation of the character of a
river as a whole, demanding broader
and more powerful factors and con-
cerned with the non-uniform move-
ment of the water, are far from be-
ing useless so far as the minor bed is
concerned ; they prove that it is the
uniform movement alone, with an ac-
tion sufficiently prolonged, which
gives a definite form to a river. In
fact, as the longitudinal slopes, with
their variations depending upon the
level of the water, produce the de-
scribed effects upon the longitudinal
currents, they form at certain points
(according to the general plan of the
stream) transverse slopes, due to the
inertia of the masses of water in

MECHANISM OF RIVER BEDS

S3i

movement, and these again cause
transverse currents, independently of
the regular or irregular condition of
the river. As we have already indi-
cated, these phenomena appear upon
curves, along which, due to the re-
action due to the concave bank and
the pressure of the water which is
there elevated, the liquid masses de-
scend toward the bottom, driving the
lower layers over toward the con-
vex bank, as a resultant of the longi-
tudinal transverse movements. There
is thus produced in the water a cur-
rent having a permanent helicoidal
movement which transfers the de-
posits from the bottom of the con-
cave bank to the convex shore, simi-
lar to the action seen on a smaller
scale by the action of a whirlpool
upon a bed of sand. The result is
the production .of a deep channel
along the concave bank and a cor-
responding bar on the opposite side
of the river, a fact which repeats it-
self at every turn of the stream.

It is phenomena of currents of this
sort, discussed analytically by the
French engineers MM. Fargue and
Dubois and others, which are used
in connection with what may be
called the normal width, to lay out
new lines for the banks of a stream
for improvement.

These are, however, far from in-
cluding all the causes determining
the condition of a river bed, and
very often they are wholly unavaila-
ble.

They, therefore, do not prevent
some of the disagreeable surprises
which sometimes follow the execu-
tion of rectification works, especially
if these have not been made with
due attention to the natural proper-
ties of the river. Being correct,
however, for the movement of the
current at low water, they serve to
furnish the necessary data in con-
nection with the utilisation of the
low-water currents in producing the
desired depth. We shall not repeat
the points emphasised by the French
engineers with so much ability, with

regard to the plan of a rectified
stream; we must return to the ques-
tion indicated above, of the import-
ance of the possible obstruction of
the critical point of the passage from
the shallow to the following deeper
portion. We may remark that to
avoid shoaling up at this point, it is
necessary to make the junction be-
tween the shallow of the following
depth of a concave form, either by
the use of the natural banks, or by
the construction of concave jetties or
dikes, these producing, as ex-
perience has demonstrated, a deep
channel at their base, the reaction
being sometimes so powerful as to
require the jetty to be strengthened
against destruction. The connection
with a concave curve being executed,
there is added to the periodical en-
trainment of the deposits a continu-
ous transverse entrainment, so that
the material deposited during the
temporary retardations accumulates
against the convex bank without ob-
structing the channel on the concave
side. By a rational arrangement of
curves it is thus possible to maintain
a satisfactory depth in the connection
between the shallow and the follow-
ing depth.

We shall go no further into the
subject of the improvement of shal-
lows— this lies in the domain of the
hydraulic engineer. We have limited
our problem to the consideration of
general facts ; and we repeat, before
closing, that it is only by experi-
mental investigations conducted ac-
cording to a uniform programme (in-
vestigations so rare as to be entirely
lacking in many cases) that we may
be able to make the comparisons nec-
essary to judge the extent to which
the ideas here expressed are in har-
monious accord with the diverse phe-
nomena of the currents of rivers of
different types.

Fewer formulas and more obser-
vations ; this is the demand which the
student of the actual behaviour of
rivers makes of the specialists in the
interest of true development

CONVEYORS

By Henry J. Edsall

IT is doubtful whether many people,
not directly interested, have ever
stopped to consider what an im-
portant part conveyors play in the
trade and activities of the present
day. They may, in some of their
travels, have noticed a little stone
elevator handling stone from a
crusher to an overhead bin, from
which it can be rapidly loaded to
wagons by means of chutes. Or,
possibly, they have seen a conveyor
equipment, at some electric power
station, handling coal to a bin above
the boilers, from whence it feeds au-
tomatically to the mechanically-
operated stokers, and then on into
the furnace to supply the energy to
light our houses and move our street
cars. In most cases, however, con-
veying machinery is buried in the
depths of some manufacturing plant,
or is in some out-of-the-way place,
where the average person would not
dream of its existence.

This is an age of large and varied
enterprises, and the products of
mine, farm and forest have to be
handled to cars or boats at the ship-
ping point, unloaded and handled
again at the receiving or transfer
point, and, possibly, handled many
times and in varied forms through
the processes of a manufacturing
plant.

Therefore when we consider the
enormous quantities of bulk materials
and the endless number of barrels,
boxes and other packages which have
to be handled from one place to an-
other every day, we begin to realize
what possibilities there are for re-
ducing the costs of handling by us-
ing machinery instead of manual
labor.

532

In the Century Dictionary we find
the word conveyor defined as : "One
who or that which conveys, carries y
transports, or transfers from one per-
son or place to another." This would
apply to almost any kind of a car-
rier, from a man with a wheelbar-
row to a modern coal-handling out-
fit, but, as a rule, the term conveyor
is now used to describe those ma-
chines which move at a constant
speed and convey continuously in a
given direction. They don't stop and
go back for another load, but keep
the material moving forward all the
time, so that bulk materials are con-
veyed in a continuous stream, and
packages are handled one after an-
other at close and regular intervals.

Thus, though the stream may be
small, or the speed of the package
carrier low, the fact that the opera-
tion is continuous makes the carry-
ing capacity large. A comparatively
small conveyer will, therefore, more
than keep up with a car or platform
elevator, operating intermittently, es-
pecially if the car has to go back
very far for its next load. In ad-
dition to this the conveyor can be ar-
ranged so that it is necessary only
to feed the material to it and it
will be automatically discharged at
the desired point. The power con-
sumed is also likely to be consider-
ably less than with the car or plat-
form elevator since, when it is used
for elevating, the lifting side of a
conveyor is balanced by the return
run and the only power necessary is- '
the amount required for lifting the
weight of the material and overcom-
ing friction.

The conveyors which are most
used at the present time may be di~

CONVEYORS

533

AN INCLINED CONVEYOR FOR COAL. LINK-BELT COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA

vided into the three general classes,
of chain conveyors, screw conveyors
and belt conveyors. The general use
of chain conveyors started with the
invention of the Ewart malleable iron
link belt patented by Mr. William D.
Ewart in 1873. As shown in the il-
lustration, it consists of one-piece
links of a proper width to give sta-
bility and bearing surface in the
joints, and in the contact with the
sprocket wheels. It has hook and
bar joints, and the links may be de-
tached by simply turning two ad-
joining links to a certain angle and
slipping out sideways. This chain
proved an excellent power transmit-
ting device for slow or moderate
speeds, its cost being low enough to
insure its wide use commercially.
It was not long before the possi-

bility of using chains in other ways
occurred to people. Wings, called
attachments, were cast on some of the
links and buckets bolted to an end-
less chain running over sprocket
wheels, one above the other, the
buckets picking up grain or other
material at the lower end, carrying
it up and discharging it at the upper
end. This was the beginning of the
various types of chain and bucket
elevators. For conveying horizon-
tally or on an incline, other attach-
ments were designed, to which
scrapers or, technically, flights were
attached. As the chain moved along
these flights pushed the material
along in a metal or wooden trough,
from which it was discharged either
over the end or through doors or
gates in the bottom.

534

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

MODERN COAL HANDLING IN AN IRON WORKS. LINK-BELT COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA

Various types of bucket elevators
are used at the present time, depend-
ing on the material handled and the
kind of service. In some cases the
buckets pick up the material from
a boat, and in others it is delivered
directly into them. Likewise, some
elevators depend on the centrifugal
force to throw the material out of
the buckets as they pass around the
head wheel, and in others the ma-
treial slides from one bucket over
the back of the one ahead, the
buckets being continuous, or else the
direction of travel of the buckets is
changed so that the material drops
out by gravity. Sometimes the
buckets are pivoted, so they can be
tilted, or the bottom arranged to
drop down and let the material fall
out.

The centrifugal discharge and con-
tinuous bucket elevators ordinarily
employ only one chain, unless the
service is heavy, but the other types
usually have two. The elevators
with pivoted buckets and others
which carry the material along hori-
zontally or on an incline, are termed
carriers, and these machines fre-
quently follow a path with several
changes of direction. Such machines
usually have the buckets arranged so
that when traveling horizontally they
are continuous, that is with little or

no gaps between, and in some cases
each bucket has a lip which laps over
the edge of the next bucket to avoid
spilling material between them when
they are being loaded. The chains
of the carrier are of heavy flat links
of malleable iron or steel and have
rollers at the joints which, on hori-
zontal or inclined runs, travel on
steel tracks and support the buckets
and chain.

Flight conveyors are made with
either one or two chains and vari-
ous shapes and sizes of flights.
Sometimes the flights slide on the
trough, and sometimes they are sup-
ported above the trough by sliding
or rolling the chain along on tracks
at the side, or by separate slides or
rollers at each side.

Screw conveyors have a central
shaft to which is attached a spiral
blade, this blade revolving with the
shaft and pushing the material along
parallel to it. A trough is usually
provided of steel, wood or concrete,
though the material which is being
conveyed is sometimes allowed to
pile up around the screw and form
its own trough. Screw conveyors are
simple and not very expensive, and
are largely used in manufacturing
plants and in handling grain, but
they are suitable only for handling
certain kinds of materials, and will

CONVEYORS

535

HUNT COAL AND ASH CONVEYOR AT WORKS OF B. F. GOODRICH COMPANY, AKRON, OHIO

not satisfactorily handle coarse,
sticky or very abrasive materials, the
latter tending to wear them out
rapidly.

Belt conveyors consist essentially
of a belt running over pulleys at
each end and supported on idlers at
intermediate points. Where bulk ma-
terials are to be handled the idlers on

the conveying run are usually de-
signed so that they trough or bend
the belt to a concave form to make
it hold more material, without spill-
ing it over the edge. This is ac-
complished either by making the idler
roller with a concave curve or using
more than one roller and placing at
least two of them on ' an incline so

536

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

HOW MATERIAL WAS HANDLED BEFORE MODERN CONVEYING MACHINERY CAME INTO USE

as to bend up the outer edges of the
belt. A belt conveyor can be run at
a comparatively high speed with cor-
respondingly high rate of handling,
and it will handle abrasive materials
without undue wear, since the ma-
terial rides along on the belt, as it
does in the buckets of a carrier, and
there is no sliding, as with a flight
or screw conveyor. Belt conveyors
are, therefore, admirably adapted to
certain conditions, but they are rather
an expensive type of conveyor and,
in many cases, cost more to main-
tain than some other types. They
also have the objection of being
rather cumbersome to discharge
from, except over the end.

The uses for conveyors are almost
unlimited. First of all comes the
handling of coal. Starting at an an
thracite mine we find that it is often
not convenient to run the cars to the
head of the breaker. In such a case
they are dumped on a tipple at the
mouth of the shaft and the coal feeds
to a flight conveyor or bucket car-
rier, running up on a long incline,
and delivering coal, possibly at the

rate of 500 tons per hour, at the
head of the breaker. From here it
passes down through a system of
crushers, screens and washers until
it comes out at the bottom into rail-
road cars as egg, stove, nut and so
on.

At some West Virginia soft coal
mines conditions may be reversed,
the mouth of the mine being up on a
hillside and the railroad down in the
valley. Here a retarding flight con-
veyor holds the coal back so that it
will not slide down the trough with
a rush, and as the preparation and
separation into different sizes is prob-
ably omitted, it goes direct to rail-
road cars and is shipped as run-of-
mine coal. These and many other
problems at the mines are solved
with conveyors.

When the coal is shipped from the
mines much of it goes direct to the
consumer or the retail dealer, but
when the supply exceeds the demand
part of the coal is put into storage
to remain until needed, later on. This
storage also serves as a source of
supply in case of strikes. With sized

CONVEYORS

537

THE DODGE SYSTEM OF COAL STORAGE FOR ANTHRACITE

anthracite coal, which is easily han-
dled, and can be piled to almost any
depth, conveyors are the simplest and
most economical method of handling
into and out of storage. The
"Dodge" system is the one most
used, since it is comparatively cheap
in first cost and very economical in
handling the coal, the cost of han-
dling from cars to storage pile and
back to cars again being less than
three cents per ton. With this sys-
tem two light steel trusses are set at
an angle with the ground so that
they come together at the top, like
the timbers of a peaked roof. These
trusses are braced against wind
pressure by means of guy ropes and
the one on the side towards the rail-
road track is fitted with a flight con-
veyor, with a track hopper at the
foot. In this case the bottom of the
conveyor trough is formed by means
of a steel ribbon, which winds upon
a drum at the foot, so that the trough
bottom can be made to end at any
desired point on the truss. The coal
is delivered from the bottom-dump
cars through the track hopper to the
foot of the conveyor, which dis-

charges it over the end of the rib-
bon bottom. In this way the coal is
discharged from the conveyor close
to the ground, when the pile is
started, and the discharging point
moved up as the pile increases, so
that there is practically no drop and,
therefore, no breakage. Conical piles
are formed under these trusses, each
pile containing, in some cases, 60,000
tons of coal.

These piles are placed in pairs so
that when full they almost come to-
gether at the ground level, and a
reloader is placed between them and
arranged to swing either way over
the area covered. This reloader con-
sists of a flight conveyor, with the
chain traveling in a horizontal plane,
and the whole conveyor supported on
wheels traveling on circular tracks
and pivoted back near the railroad
track. When it is desired to reload
the coal from the pile the operator
starts the conveyor and then, by
means of a mechanism controlled by
levers, swings it against the pile.
The flights slide along on a steel
trough, with an open side towards
the pile, and as they come into con-

538

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

CONVEYOR DELIVERING COAL INTO BINS AT THE WORKS OF THE MORGAN & WRIGHT COMPANY, DETROIT.
C. W. HUNT COMPANY, NEW YORK

tact with the coal they push it along
to the pivot point, then tip an incline,
and it is discharged over screen
chutes back into the railroad cars.
The largest plant of this kind now in
existence has a total storage capacity
of nearly 500,000 tons.

As soft coal is usually shipped as
run-of-mine and contains lar^e
lumps, it cannot be satisfactorily han-
dled in this way. Besides this, it is
not safe to store it too deep for fear
of spontaneous combustion. On this
account, when soft coal is to be
stored in large quantities it is usually
best handled by means of a self-fill-
ing bucket holding a ton or more.
Sometimes a revolving locomotive
crane is used to hoist the bucket and
swing it around so as to distribute
the coal in a shallow pile covering
a large area, and at other times the
bucket travels back and forth on an
elevated bridge which either swings

around a central pivot point or
travels along on parallel rails. The
bucket also picks the coal up from
the storage pile and takes it back to
railroad cars or vessels or delivers
it to a hopper from which it feeds
to a conveyor.

Storage is a very important con-
sideration in these days, when any
interruption to the fuel supply is
such a serious matter, and besides
the railroads and coal companies,
many electric companies, gas com-
panies and other large consumers,
have their own outside storage
plants of a capacity to last several
months. This not only insures them
against strikes and interruption to
railroad traffic, but enables them to
take advantage of low prices at cer-
tain seasons of the year, and thereby
save considerable money in buying
coal.

At the end of the journey coal

CONVEYORS

539

A CONVEYOR SYSTEM FOR BOILER HOUSE. LINK-BELT COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA

LOCAL COAL STORAGE BIN. LINK-BELT COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA

54o

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

MORGAN & WRIGHT BOILER ROOMS, SHOWING HUNT CONVEYOR IN DISTANCE, ALSO TRAVELING CHUTE TO

FEED AUTOMATIC STOKERS

either goes direct to the consumer
or to a dealer for further distribu-
tion. The large consumers are the
railroads, electric power plants, gas
and coke works, and manufacturing
plants. The dealer sells the domestic
sizes to householders for use in their
houses and the steam sizes to public
buildings, office buildings, manufac-
turing plants and other places for
generating steam.

In any case it is necessary to un-
load it from the cars and either cart
it away at once or handle it to some
form of storage or bin. If it is
shoveled from the cars by hand it
costs, as a rule, from eight to ten
cents per ton, while if it is dumped

through the bottom of the cars into
a pit underneath the track and de-
livered to the pile or bin with con-
veyors, it can ordinarily be handled
for about three or four cents per
ton, and sometimes less. Where con-
siderable coal is handled this is quite
an inducement, and money invested
in coal handling machinery usually
pays a good return on the invest-
ment. An additional and even
greater advantage obtained by the
use of conveyors in unloading cars is
the possibility of placing the coal
where most convenient, so that little
further expense will be necessary in
subsequent handling. In a boiler-
room, where mechanical stokers are

CONVEYORS

54i

END OF BOILER ROOM, MORGAN & WRIGHT WORKS, SHOWING HUNT BUCKET CONVEYOR AND MOVABLE HOPPER

used, it can be placed in an over-
head bin, from which it will feed by
gravity direct to the stokers, so that
it need not be handled at all by hand.

In some of the large power houses
these bins hold several thousand tons,
one of the power houses which sup-
plies power to the electric railways
in New York City having a bin with
a capacity of 15,000 tons.

Where the stoking is done by

hand it can be stored overhead or in
front of the boilers, so that it will
feed to the boiler-room floor, within
easy reach of the firemen. For a
small boiler-room a simple chain and
bucket elevator or inclined conveyor
often suffices for transferring the
coal from cars to bins. The foot of
the elevator is placed in a pit under-
neath the track, and the coal feeds
to it from the- bottom of the car

542

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

A MODERN FURNACE HOIST. BROWN HOISTING MACHINERY COMPANY, CLEVELAND, OHIO

through an intermediate track hop-
per, with a gate to regulate the flow.
Where the bin is of some length, a
distributing conveyor is placed over
it with various discharge points
its length. For small-sized
a screw conveyor is sometimes

along
coal

used, and for larger coal either a
flight or belt conveyor.

Run-of-mine bituminous coal con-
taining large lumps is often crushed
before delivering to the bins, especi-
ally where mechanical stokers are
used. A crusher, with revolving-
toothed rolls, is placed close to the
track hopper and some form of au-
tomatic feeder is used to feed the
coal from the track hopper to the

CONVEYORS

543

544

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

C. W. HUNT CONVEYOR AT WORKS OF THE B. F. GOODRICH COMPANY, AKRON, OHIO

crusher at a regular and suitable
rate. Where only a small amount is
handled the large lumps are some-
times disposed of by breaking them
by hand on a grating placed over
the track hopper, this grating having
openings large enough to allow all
except the large lumps to pass
through.

Instead of using one machine for
elevating and a second machine for
distributing the coal in the bins,
these two operations are often ac-
complished by a single machine,
either of the gravity discharge or
pivoted bucket type. The latter type
is also a good one for handling ashes,
so that both coal and ashes can be
handled by the same machine. With
such an arrangement the upper run
of the carrier travels over the bin
and the lower run in a tunnel or
basement underneath or in front of
the ash pits, so that the ashes can be
fed to it with little labor. Fre-
quently, however, a separate ash-

handling outfit is installed, either a
separate carrier which both conveys
horizontally and elevates, or a con-
veyor or car for conveying horizon-
tally and a chain and bucket elevator,
or a so-called "skip hoist," that is a
single large bucket and cable hoist
for delivering the ashes to an over-
head bin, from which they can be
drawn out to carts or railroad cars
or boats.

Machinery for handling ashes has
to be designed with due regard to
their abrasive nature and it also, as
a rule, has to stand the corrosive ac-
tion of the water used in quenching
them, this water becoming slightly
acid on contact with the ashes. This
is a very severe service for any ma-
chinery, and while a simple elevator
can be made quite durable without
being excessively expensive, a car-
rier is about the only satisfactory
type of horizontal conveyor for ashes,
aside from a car, and a good carrier
is quite expensive. Sometimes a

CONVEYORS

545

A HALF MILE OF ORE AND COKE BINS BUILT FOR INDIANA STEEL COMPANY, GARY, IND., BY THE
BROWN HOISTING MACHINERY COMPANY

VIEW BENEATH THE GARY ORE AND COKE BINS

6-5

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

[■RACK 11 i a i WORKS 01 MORGAN .\ «bu;iii, DETROIT. ( . W. mini COMPANY. m« YORK

wide malleable iron chain is used
without any attachments, the chain it-
self pushing the ashes along in a
concrete or cast-iron trough. With

SUCh a chain moving very slow ly the
life is fairly long, aiul it is not very

expensive to replace when worn out.
\ system devised recently uses air
pressure to blow the ashes along dry.
and the\ are sprayed as they are de
livered to the bin.

\t gas plants and coke oven plants
the coal is handled in much the same

manner as at steam plants. At the
coke oven plants a larry or charging
car receives its coal from an over-
head bin and delivers it to the ovens.
\t retort and generator houses ami
producer plants a charging machine
or traveling hopper acts as the in-
termediary between the overhead bin
and the retort or generator, or in
the smaller plants the coal is some-
limes delivered to the charging floor
and then shoveled by hand. At the
gas and coke plants there is also the

CONVEYORS

547

problem of handling the coke which,
on account of its abrasive nature, is
usually handled on a belt conveyor,
or by some form of carrier.

When coal is to be used by a rail-
road for coaling engines it is usually
placed in overhead pockets, so that
it can be delivered by gravity to the
tenders. This is accomplished either
by running the cars upon a trestle
and directly over the pockets, or by
transferring from the cars to the
pockets by machinery. The latter ar-
rangement requires much less ground
space, can be fitted to almost any
arrangement of tracks, and is usu-
ally cheaper in first cost and also in
operating and maintenance costs
when the interest on the investment
is taken into consideration. The lo-
comotive ashes or cinders are dumped
into pits and handled to an overhead
bin by a carrier, or dumped into tubs
placed in pits between the rails, and
the tubs then hoisted by a cable hoist
and dumped into an overhead bin, or
sometimes direct to cars.

At retail coal yards a mechanical
equipment is esnecially valuable. The
cars are handled on a ground level
siding with a pit and track hopper at
one point. After placing a car over
the pit the machinery is started, the
doors in the bottom of the car
opened and the coal flows into the
track hopper and down to the foot
of the elevator, the rate of flow be-
ing regulated by means of a gate or
automatic feeder. The elevator
buckets carry the coal up to the de-
sired level where, as a rule, it is de-
livered to a distributing flight con-
veyor, which conveys it along the
top of the pocket, and by means of
the discharge gates, it is delivered
to its special bin, according to its
size. Sometimes a single machine of
either the gravity discharge or
pivoted bucket type does both the
elevating and conveying. The ma-
chinery is driven by means of an
electric motor or gas or steam en-
gine, and about the only labor neces-
sary is to start the motor or engine,
open the gate where the coal is to be

discharged and open the car doors.
With the hoppered steel cars practi-
cally all the coal will flow out with-
out help, but with wooden cars, with
part of the bottom flat, there is some
shoveling necessary to clean out the
car completely. These outfits usu-
ally handle from 30 to 50 tons per
hour, and the machinery is simple,
and not very expensive.

After the coal is placed in the
overhead bin it can be drawn out to
the wagons by gravity. This not
only saves the labor of shoveling the
coal to the wagons and the inevitable
delays to the teams, but it also saves
one operation, that of screening the
coal, for the chutes which deliver to
the wagons can be fitted with wire
screen bottoms, so that the coal is
screened as it flows over them.

The overhead pockets are usually
built of wood and partitioned off into
the required number of bins. Of
late, concrete has been used to a con-
siderable extent. This makes a fire-
proof building, and one which re-
quires little or no expense for main-
tenance.

Where coal is received by water
the boat unloading is generally ac-
complished by means of a single self-
filling grab bucket and hoisting rig,
after which it may be handled by
means of conveyors or some sort of
car system. A chain and bucket ele-
vator is sometimes used for unload-
ing boats, the foot of the machine
being lowered into the coal and the
buckets dipping it up as they pass
around the foot wheel, but this type
of machine is not suitable for large
lump coal.

In plants for crushing, separating
and treating ores, conveyors play an
important part. Bucket elevators and
belt conveyors are the usual types
employed and they handle the ore
from crushers to storage bins, to
magnetic separators, water jigs, etc.
In unloading vessels and handling
into and out of storage grab bucket
machinery is used almost exclusively.
This class of machinery has been per-
fected to a remarkable degree in the

548

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

\^f\

operations on the Great Lakes, and
in some cases a single bucket picks
up fifteen tons of ore at a time. The
ore steamers are designed with a
view to rapidity of unloading, and
a 10,000-ton steamer can now be
completely unloaded in five or six
hours with four unloaders working
together.

Bucket elevators are also used a
great deal in handling broken stone
from crushers to bins or piles and
for handling sand from banks to cars
or boats, or in delivering to bins.

In handling grain, conveyors are
indispensable, and without them the
enormous grain elevators which
handle and store such large quanti-
ties of grain would be practically im-
possible.

At shipping points bucket elevators
lift the grain to the desired level, and
belt or screw conveyors distribute it
to the various bins. When it is to
be shipped other conveyors receive it
from the bins and deliver it to cars
or boats. Likewise, at re-shipping-
points it is handled from cars to bins
and from bins to vessels, or the re-
verse. At one wharf in Philadelphia
there are two 36-inch belt conveyors
running from the elevator to the end
of the wharf, with delivery points to
vessels at intervals. The combined
capacity of these two conveyors is
28.000 bushels per hour.

In the manufacturing industries
conveyors have a very important
place in the handling of bulk ma-
terials. For instance, in a cement
mill, the material ingredients have to
be handled over and over again.
First they have to go through the
crushers and grinding mills, with inter-
mediate storage bins, then through the
kilns and coolers and to the clinker
storage, then through more mills, and
finally to the stock house. In such
cases the economical handling from
one process to another plays an im-

*<-

CONVEYING APPARATUS IN A DEPARTMENT STORE

portant part in the cost of the fin-
ished product. In similar ways con-
veyors are used in chemical and fer-
tilizer plants, paint and varnish fac-
tories and in plants for manufactur-
ing glass, soap, rubber, brick and
pottery.

In foundries conveyors handle the
sand to storage bins, or to mould-
ing machines, take the waste or burnt
sand from the foundry and deliver
pig iron and coke to storage bins, or
to the charging floor. In some cases
moulding machines are placed along-
side a conveyor or moulding table,
the moulds being placed on the con-
veyor as fast as they are made,
poured and allowed to cool while
moving slowly along. When they
come to a certain point they are
dumped off on a shaking-out grate,
where the sand goes through to be
tempered again and conveyed back to
the moulding machines, and the flask
and casting remain on the grate.
This is called continuous moulding-,
and in at least one foundry convey-
ors are used to take the empty flasks
back to the moulding machines and
the castings to the cleaning room and
a moving sidewalk facilitates the
operation of pouring, by making it
possible for the ladle operator to
move along at the same speed as the
moulds.

At blast furnace plants the molten

CONVEYORS

549

metal is poured into moving pig
moulds and the conveyor dips down
into a tank of water, so that the
pigs are quickly cooled while in tran-
sit and then discharged over the end
directly into a railroad car without
having been touched by human
hands.

In rolling mills the plates, rails,
bars, etc., are handled back and forth
from the rolls by live-roll conveyors,
which are simply a series of revolv-
ing rolls. Ingots, bundles of wire,
crop ends and various pieces are also
conveyed from one place to another,
and even the scale that peels off the
metal at the rolls is taken care of
with conveyors.

In hardware factories and various
metal working plants metal parts are
conveyed from one machine to an-
other, or from one part of the plant
to another, sometimes being handled
through a japanning oven or other
process.

At sugar plantations and mills con-
veyors are extensively used for
handling the cane, the bagasse, which
is the crushed cane after the juice
has been squeezed out, and for
handling the raw sugar. Sugar re-
fineries also employ conveyors for
various purposes.

In the numerous breakfast food
plants the grain is carried through
many different operations with con-
veyors, and some of these plants have
very complete and automatic systems.
Breweries and malting houses also
use grain handling conveyors quite
extensively.

In saw-mills an endless chain, with
pushers at intervals, is used to take
the logs out of the water and up to
the saws, and from one place to an-
other. Boards, slabs, bark and saw-
dust are also handled with conveyors.

At pulp and paper mills the logs
are handled in the same way and
after being sawed into blocks they
are handled to the barkers and chip-
pers. or to storage, with block con-
veyors. The chips also have to be
conveyed to the digesters or to stor-

A BARREL CONVEYOR. LINK-BELT COMPANY,
PHILADELPHIA

age and, in some cases, the pulp is
also handled with conveyers.

The handling of barrels, boxes and
various packages at shipping and re-
ceiving points, warehouses, stores
and manufacturing plants, forms a
separate branch of conveying ma-
chinery, and many special machines
have to be designed to meet the vari-
ous problems. When carrying hori-
zontally or on a slight incline belt
conveyors are frequently used for the
lighter packages. For heavier work
apron conveyors, made up of a con-
tinuous line of steel or wooden slats
bolted to two endless chains, are used,
or the box or barrel is pushed along
by some style of pusher attached to
one or more chains.

Some of the heavier slat conveyors
or moving platforms are called
ramps and are used for carrying
trucks and miscellaneous freight and
baggage to and from cars and ves-
sels, or from one place to another.
Where used for loading and unload-
ing vessels the wharf end of the
ramp is pivoted so that the outer end

55°

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

HOW NEWSPAPERS ARE CONVEYED IN A MODERN PUBLISHING ESTABLISHMENT. LINK-BELT CO., PHILADELPHIA

can move up and down to follow the
rise and fall of the tide. The steve-
dore usually rides along with the
truck, and where there is consider-
able tide the ramp is especially valu-
able, as the slow and strenuous work
of pushing the trucks up the incline
is avoided. Moving sidewalks and
moving stairways also belong to this
class of conveyors.

In elevating or lowering barrels,
boxes and the like, they are carried
on some style of arm or suspended
tray, these being spaced at frequent
intervals on one or more endless
chains. The simplest form of these
machines is one with fixed arms,
which carries the barrels or boxes up
or down and lets them roll or slide
off as they pass around the wheels
at one end. These machines deliver

at only one end or the other. Where
it is desired to deliver at a number
of points, say several floors of a
building, an arm with an automatic
tripping device is used. These carry
their load up to the desired floor,
where a trip has been set, which en-
gages with the arms in such a way
that they tip the load off. When
used for lowering, the box or barrel
usually extends beyond the arm on
each side, so that it can be picked
off by means of skids or slides placed
at any floor. These machines move
very slowly, but if the arms are
placed quite close together the car-
rying capacity is very high. For in-
stance, a barrel elevator moving at a
speed of 80 feet per minute with
arms every 8 feet, would carry 10
barrels per minute, or 600 per hour.

CONVEYORS

UNLOADING

551

A TRAY CONVEYOR IN A BISCUIT BAKERY. LINK-BELT COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA

THE RECEIVING END OF A BISCUIT CONVEYOR. LINK-BELT COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA

552

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Very little power is required, and no
operator is necessary, the attendants
simply loading the barrels on the ma-
chine and taking them away as they
are discharged.

The suspended-tray type of ma-
chine consists of two endless chains-
with pins at intervals on which the
trays are hung in such a way that
the bottoms always remain horizon-
tal. In some cases the packages are
placed on the trays by hand, as they
move slowly past the loading points,
and taken off by hand as they move
by the receiving points. Or, with
what is called fingered trays, the
packages can be automatically picked
up and discharged. These trays have
bottoms made up of fingers or slats
attached to a cross-rod and spaced
far enough apart to allow them to
pass between other fingers set at the
loading and delivery points. The
package is placed on the stationary
fingers at the loading point, and the
tray picks it up as it passes. It is
then carried up and over the head,
and as the tray descends, it deposits
the package on stationary fingers ex-
tending in between the fingers of the
tray. These receiving fingers may
be set on an incline, so that the pack-
age will slide off on a table or on
the floor.

In handling newspapers and maga-
zines the suspended-tray type of ma-

chine is frequently used. In this case
the bottoms are made of cast-iron,
with the cross bar at the back, and
the fingers all pointing in one direc-
tion. The trays pick up the stacks
of paper from the loading fingers and
carry them up and over the head and
deposit them on the unloading fingers
on the descending side. These un-
loading fingers are equipped with
moving belts or chains, which carry
the papers off out of the way of the
next descending tray and the attend-
ants take them away before they get
to the end of the belts. In one press-
room the attendants were used to
placing the papers on the carrier of
an elevator similar to a dumb waiter.
This machine moved rapidly back
and forth, and when the new slow-
moving machine was installed the
men said that it made them nervous,
as it did not seem capable of keep-
ing up with the rush of papers.
They soon learned, however, that the
slow-moving machine was more than
the equal of the old one, since the
trays came along at such frequent
intervals, and there was no waiting
for the carrier to come back after
one load was sent up. Similar ma-
chines are used for sending the
stereotype plates from the plate-room
to the press-room, and for returning
the used plates to the plate-room for
re-melting.

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

By Lionel Wiener

VI. THE LEOPOLDINA AND MINAS SYSTEMS THE LEOPOLDINA RAILWAY.

THE present Leopoldina Railway
company is an English one
bearing the same name as a
Brazilian one, that of the daughter
of the Emperor Dom Pedro. It was
incorporated in 1898.

The feature of the system is that
it covers a definite region : the east-
ern portion of the States of Rio and
Minas, and the south of Espirito
Santo; or, in other words, the stretch
of country east of the Central Rail-
way and south of Bahia. All the
lines originally owned by other com-
panies in this zone have been ab-
sorbed and merged into the system.

It thus comprises a number of old
undertakings and a large mileage,
built by the Leopoldina Company, to
connect or develop these lines.

Neither of the two lines leading
down to Rio was built originally by
the Leopoldina Company.

One of them starts from Rio itself,
and one from Nictheroy, opposite.
These towns are now connected by a
number of steamboats. Many of
them belong to the Cantareira Tram-
way company, and a concession for
an electric-tube railway under the bay
has been granted.

The older line starts from Maua,
at the end of the bay, and scales the
Serra, past Petropolis to Entre Rios.
A long northern extension reaches
Saude, 281 miles away. The Leopol-
dina company now owns the whole
line, besides the bay steamers from
Maua to Rio, and has recently pur-
chased the "Norte," or Northern
Railway, from stralla to Rio, so as
to gain independent access into the
capital.

The Nictheroy line was originally
the Cantagallo Railway Company,
runninsr to Macuco. It is now the

first section of two important routes :
a northerly one, up the Serra to
Novo Friburgo and Porto Novo, the
Central Railway's terminal on the
Parnahyba River, and on to Santa
Luzia, 270 miles ; the other, along the
coast to Macahe, a seaport, Campos,
on the Parnahyba's estuary — the ob-
solete Macahe and Campos Railway —
Muniz Frew, near the Itapemirim
River, and Victoria, capital of Es-
pirito Santo, a length of 275 miles.

A number of branches connect
these main lines with each other,
bringing the total mileage up to 1582
miles, the largest mileage in Brazil;
866 are in the State of Rio, 528 in
Minas, and the rest in Espirito Santo.

The system is now meter-gauge
throughout, a number of formerly
3 feet 7 1/3 inches and of broad-
gauge lines having been converted.

On the whole, the radius of the
curves is small and the gradients
heavy, particularly up the Serra
The radius of curves is usually lim-
ited at 264 feet and the gradients at
1 in 3 ; but on these sections the
radius of the curves is as low as 131
feet and the gradients reach 1 in 12.

Both the Serra lines are old, and
both the Principe de Grao Para and
the Cantagallo lines we;e broad
gauge from the bay to the foot of
the hills. The former was but 10
miles long and had been built by Vis-
count Maua, in 1852, and was the
first railway line opened in Brazil.
It was laid to the 5-foot 6-inch
gauge and built without any subsidy.
Its immediate success incited pro-
moters to continue railway building,
and it was a most powerful argument
in favour of railway enterprise at
a time when it needed such help.

On May 31, 1881,. it was purchased

553

554

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Leopoldiua Ry. System

Central of Brazil Ry's

"West of Minas Ry.

Private Lines belonging to
various Companies

Railways Building or Projected
River Steamers
Limit of the States
End of Steamer Lines

MAP OF THE LEOFOLDINA AND MINAS SYSTEMS

by the Principe de Grao Para Rail-
way Company, who extended it to
Entre Rios, some 92 kilometers (51
miles).

There is a Riggenbach rack section
up the Serra between the stations of
Raiz and Alto do Serra, 6600 yards
apart and 2676 feet above each other.
The maximum gradient is 1 in 6.3
and the radius of the curves 430 feet.
The original locomotive was ordered
from the Baldwin Locomotive

Works, and was the first rack loco-
motive built by them. The cylinders
were 12 by 20 inches; the pitch-line
of the cog wheel was 41.35 inches,
and the weight 15 tons. The next
locomotive had two cog wheels and
eight supporting wheels ; its weight
in working order was 79,000 pounds.
Many additional locomotives have
been put into service since, each with
greater power. The maximum load,
exclusive of engine, is 28 tons for

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

555

passenger and 35 tons for freight
trains. The rack weighs 100 pounds
per yard.

The journey to Petropolis is ac-
complished in observation cars,
pushed up the Serra in 2j^ hours; or
else it can be accomplished by boat
across the bay, in the Leopoldina
steamers plying between Rio and
Maua, and from there on by rail.

The substitution of 65-pound rails
for the 40-pound ones has caused
the journey to and from Petropolis
to be accelerated. Monthly season
tickets are issued at £10 5s., with a
descending scale reaching £15 8s.
for the third three-monthly season-
ticket. Return excursion-tickets are
issued at 9 shillings each.

A new electric line has been con-
ceded, which would compete for the
Petropolis traffic. It would bring
Petropolis within 36 miles of Rio,
and, should it be constructed, would
materially cripple the Leopoldina's
traffic. The Petropolis passenger
traffic, as it is, has been falling off,
owing to the improvements of Rio
and to the numberless steps suc-
cessfully taken to turn the capital
into a healthful place. Yellow fever
is all but extinct, and the general
exodus at sunset, of past years, is
no longer a necessity. Luckily, pas-
senger-returns on the rest of the sys-
tem have more than compensated for
the decrease on the Petropolis line.

The cost of working the lines
leading away from the capital is
bound to be high, because the moun-
tain-range keeps so close to the shore,
and must be scaled at the very out-
set. The slopes are exceptionally
steep and no gap or valley can be
followed to the top.

The other Serra line, from Nicthe-
roy, was built by the Cantagallo
Railway Company to Macuco, in
1856, with a recent branch from
Cordeiro to Portella.

The Serra portion is reached after
a 50-mile run to Bocca do Monte,
717 feet above sea level. Theodoso,
the next station, is 2838 feet higher
and only 754 miles beyond.

The line to the foot of the hills
originally was broad-gauge, 5 feet 3
inches. Up the Serra it was laid to
the 3-foot 7 1/3-inch gauge, with a
center rail, for Fell locomotives.
These were provided with horizontal
wheels that could exert 40 tons pres-
sure against each side of the rail.
There were two pairs of horizontal
wheels, coupled; their two cylinders
were above each other in the center
of the engine. Its weight was 25
tons, empty, and 30 tons in working
order.

The gradient is 8 3/10 per cent.,
in combination with curves of 130
feet radius. No fewer than 91 curves
and reverse curves occur within a dis-
tance of about two miles.

But, as on most such lines, it was
soon deemed advisable to do away
with the complication of the Fell lo-
comotive, and an inquiry for ordinary
locomotives, able to haul 40 gross
tons up the incline, and to run at 15
miles an hour on the other parts, was
sent by the Brazilian government to
the Baldwin Locomotive Works in
1882. The first locomotives shipped
to Brazil were built to the following
principal specifications: Cylinders, 18
by 20 inches; six driving-wheels,
coupled, 39 inches diameter; wheel-
base, 9 feet 6 inches; boilers, 54
inches diameter, with 198 flues, 2
inches diameter and 10 feet 9 inches
long. These locomotives were satis-
factory and ordinary adhesion loco-
motives have operated the line ever
since. The center-rail has been re-
tained in case of breakage. The
New Zealand Government Railways
are the only company to have re-
tained a Fell-worked incline.

The Cantagallo line is probably ^ the
steepest where ordinary locomotives
are used without artificial adhesion of
any kind. The newer locomotives
haul 45 tons.

This line originally ran from Nic-
theroy to Mocnco, a distance of 111
miles. It was the earliest lease given
to the Leopoldina Company, who
purchased it from the Province of
Rio. the former owner, in 1872.

556

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

The Carangola Railway Company
is another of the original railways
that the Leopoldina early superseded.
It owned a small meter-gauge system
on the northern bank of the Para-
hyba River, to wit:

Main line, Campos Murundu Porciuncula .

Itapemirim branch

Patrocinio branch

103 miles.
13 "
24 "

There was a 7 per cent, guarantee
on a capital of £204,750.

This system was transferred to the
Leopoldina Company on September 6,
1890, at the same time as the Baraha
de Araruama Railway, which was
still building. This line of 2-foot
2-inch gauge, had a 6 per cent, guar-
antee on a fixed sum of £ 1647 per
mile built. It should have joined
the Cantagallo Railway with the
Macahe and Campos system, from
Macuco, the terminal of the for-
mer, to Triumpho. The line has
been started from Triumpho, but
even yet has not effected the junc-
tion. It has been built from Tri-
umpho to Manuel de Moraes, about
60 miles, with a short branch from
Trajano de Moraes to Santa Maria
Magdalena.

We mentioned the Macahe and
Campos system ; it was made up as
follows :

A main line, granted by the prov-
ince of Rio in 1870, and whose 60
miles from Macahe to Campos were
opened to traffic on June 13, 1875.

A line from San Fidelis to San
Antonio de Padua, 59 miles long,
which the company purchased, but
which was separated from Campos
by the Campos and San Fidelis Rail-
way Company.

Finally, a steamship service from
Macahe to Rio, which the Leopoldina
Company has discontinued.

The main line was laid to a gauge
of 0.95 meter, and the Padua sec-
tion to 1 meter.

The capital expenditure was high,
owing to much embankment work
across the lowlands ; the cost, rolling
stock included, was £5,204 per mile.

These are not all the companies

the Leopoldina Railway has absorbed.
The line from Rio to Victoria
reached only Muniz Freyr, a few
miles from Cachoeira, on the Itape-
mirim River, down which a steamer-
line runs to sea.

From the port of Victoria the State
of Espirito Santo had built a railway
to Mathilde.

This line was called the South of
Espirito Railway, which the Leo-
poldina wished to connect with its
system. The government granted
the missing link on condition that the
Leopoldina purchase the South of
Espirito Santo Railway.

For some 19 miles out of Muniz
Freyr, the line is one of the heaviest
in Brazil : this section was estimated
at £29,000; and, whether it will be
a useful addition once it is built, is
an open question.

The lines north of the Parahyba
River ceased opposite Campos. But
as soon as the Leopoldina Company
took up the system, powers were ap-
plied for to build a bridge across the
river and granted, in 1898. The con-
nection is but a mile long and has a
6 per cent, guarantee of interest on
£ 375,000.

The bridge is a six-span one, each
span being 181 }4 feet long, and is
built entirely of steel resting upon
columns of concrete, 10 feet in
diameter at the basis, tapering to 8
at the top; 400 tons of steel have
been used for the columns, and 1.080
tons for the superstructure.

The approaches on either bank are
upheld by walls of reinforced con-
crete, 843 feet long on the southern
and 33 feet long on the northern
bank. The working expenses of this
part, considered separately, are 188
per cent of the earnings — 1907 — but,
of course, its usefulness should not
be gauged this way.

The Leopoldina Railway Company
has cost about £5,700,000 or £39,-
100 per mile — 1907 — but this is not
the actual building-cost, as a number
of lines, belonging to small com-
panies that were obliged to sell, ow-
ing to pecuniary difficulties, have be-

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

557

come the Leopoldina's property at
much less than the cost price.

Owing to these companies having
been granted leases under a variety
of laws, the Leopoldina Company
owns and works lines of every possi-
ble origin.

Three of them, the Barao de Ara-
ruama — from Compos to S. Joao, 32
miles — the Central de Macahe Com-
pany— from Macahe Harbour to
Glycerio, straight inland, 27 miles —
and the Sao Eduardo to the Itape-
mirim, 58 miles — were granted a 6
per cent, paper-guarantee by the
"Union" on a basis of £3017 per
mile. This guarantee, granted in
1888, has been paid over to the Leo-
poldina Company since 1898, when
it became the lessee. Such a guaran-
tee was necessary, the ratio of ex-
penses to gross earnings being far
above 100 per cent, for all three
lines : 192, 200 and 132, respectively.
But the worst from this point of
view is the Sumidouro Line, worked
at 3°5 Per cent, of the earnings.
Small wonder that the carriage of a
ton of goods costs 2s. 2^d. per mile.

There are 558 other miles of gov-
ernment lines which have no guar-
antee from the government, though
some have been subsidised by the
States. The remainder were granted
by the States, some with, some with-
out guarantee.

The Leopoldina Company, while
bringing this heterogeneous mass of
lines under one management, endeav-
oured to bring some sort of unifica-
tion, and started building extensions
and connections.

The Grao Para line was continued
to Saude ; the Cantagallo line, that
started from Nictheroy, was extend-
ed to Port Novo, with a branch to
Portella from .Porto Novo to Santa
Luzia, on the one hand, and to Liga-
cao, on the Saude line, on the other.

There used to be a break at Entre
Rios, the continuation starting from
Serraria, the next station on the
northern line of the Central Railway,
9 miles beyond. A loop has been
opened recently, bridging this gap.

In both Entre Rios and Porto
Novo the Leopoldina Railway com-
petes with the Central Railway for
the Rio traffic. The comparative tim-
ing and distances are as follows:

Central Leopoldina

Railway. Railway.

Miles. Hours. Miles. Hours

Rio Entre rios 124 4 80 5

Rio, Porto Novo 163 6

Nictheroy, Porto Novo 136 ibi

The length is in favour of the Leo-
poldina Railway, but this line is con-
siderably the harder one.

Both these Leopoldina lines have
an important town between them :
that is Theresopolis, half-way be-
tween Petropolis, its rival, and Novo
Friburgo. A separate company
works a line from Mage there, on
the Bay of Rio, east of Maua. It is
21 miles long and has a 53/2-mile
rack-section of Riggenbach's type.

The receipts on these Serra lines
are deeply affected by the reductions
on the Central Railway. It is not
quite the game, the Leopoldina hav-
ing to compete with a railway whose
object is solely to work not lower
than cost price. The tariffs on the
Central Railway are just half those
of the Paulista Railway Company.

The capital expenditure of the
company is no guide to the actual
cost, for a number of lines belonged
to former companies that were
obliged to sell, owing to pecuniary
difficulties, and that have become
the property of the Leopoldina Com-
pany at considerably less than cost
price.

The old companies, which com-
pose the present English company,
failed in 1896, with a capital equiva-
lent to about £18,000,000. The de-
benture holders then wrote their
capital down, and exchanged their
mortgage-bonds for ordinary shares
for £5,000,000. The English com-
pany further paid off the £1,000,000
floating-debt, inclusive of £700,000
to the Federal government, who were
creditors; £2,500,000 pounds were
gradually issued besides, to bring the
rolling stock and permanent way,

558

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

then in a ruinous condition, into de-
cent repair.

Anotner couple of million sterling
have been put into the country to
carry out the recent programme of
extensions now in hand.

Before examining the lines, a few
words upon those built by the Leo-
poldina Company itself will be use-
ful.

The Saude line was opened in
1877, to Sao Geraldo, 127 miles, at
the foot of the Serra and 1,252 feet
above sea-level. Coimbra, the next
station, and 16 miles beyond, is 1,133
feet above. This Serra-scaling is one
of the most picturesque on the sys-
tem. The line was opened to Saude,
in 1885, a distance of 231 miles from
Porto Novo.

There are a number of short
branches from it, besides : to Pirapet-
ininga, then to the town of Leopol-
dina, both opened at the same time
as the trunk-line; and from Cataza-
gues to Mirahy, on the one side, and
Joao Pinheiro, on the other, opened
quite recently.

The Santa Luzia line starts from
Recreio, and passes along the termi-
nals of the obsolete Cantagallo Rail-
way.

Finally, there are the Campistan
Lines east, from Campos, and a
growing group :

Campos to Sao Joao do Barra and
Atafona,

The Santa Amaro branch,
The Mussureppe branch,
The Colomins branch.
The new extensions will add some-
354 miles, bringing the system up to
1,805 miles. Their completion is ex-
pected to take about five years. Of
this total J2.y miles are owned in fee
simple, 528 until December 31, 1999,
and 550 revert to the State of Rio or
to the Federal government at various
dates, with an average tenure lasting
till 1 961.

The most important of the new
lines is the one destined to link the
State of Minas with the Port of Vic-
toria. The Leopoldina Company,
therefore, purchased, in 1908, the Es-

pirito Santo and Caravellas Railway
from Muniz Freyr to Castello and
Alegre. This was the last independent
line in the system and the latest ac-
quisition. But there was another ob-
ject to be attained; the link runs
from Alegre, the terminal, to Man-
huassu and Ponte Nova, near Saude,
with a connection from Manhuassu
to Santa Luzia. The Cara vellas Rail-
way is, therefore, the first section of
the new line. Construction work has
been started on both sections and is
being carried on with the utmost ce-
lerity.

This will complete the system —
apart from new branches that may
be built eventually.

There is no suburban traffic except
in Rio, and this has been hampered
owing to two causes. The first is
the bad situation of the Rio terminal,
but this is to be improved and an ex-
tension built in connection with the
new port and quays.

The second reason is that a part
only of this traffic is in the hands of
the Leopoldina Railway, the Central
Railway coming in for the lion's
share, and three independent com-
panies taking a portion of the re-
mainder. These are the Marica Rail-
way, the Therezopolis, and the Rio
local lines. As the annexed map
shows, the district is made up of
Rio and Nictheroy, close to each
other on either shore of the chan-
nel leading into the bay, a few
islands and some neighbouring towns.
The latter can be connected only by
railway lines, a number of steamers
plying between the former.

(1) On the Nictheroy side, the
Marica Railway runs to Marica, on
the seashore, 39 miles away, and has
been extended even to Ponta Negra.

(2) The Theresopolis Railway,
from the bottom of the bay, has been
mentioned previously.

(3) There are two local Rio lines,
each leading to the summit of one
of the two hills that dominate Rio.

The Tijuca line is an electric-light
railway, a dozen miles long.

The Corcovado line is a rack rail-

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

559

way, electrified in 1909. It is 4,178
yards long, with curves of 400 feet
radius and gradients up to 30 per
cent., the steepest rack railway with
a single exception.

Both of these lines have been
worked at a loss most of the time,
and both have been taken over by
new companies recently.

The Leopoldina system is now ho-
mogeneous. I append hereunder a
table of the lines, with their mile-
age and origin:

This statement shows that the per-
centage of expenses to receipts was
66.7 in 1907, and 68.7 in 1908. This
decrease was due mostly to the fall-
ing off in coffee, which pays a higher
freight than any other article of ex-
port. As the system carries a large
quantity of coffee, the earnings are
largely influenced by the coffee crop.
But land cannot bear coffee continu-
ously for an indefinite number of
years without becoming "tired." It
is, therefore, necessary to throw

TABLE OF THE LINES NOW MAKING UP THE LEOPOLDINA RAILWAY SYSTEM.
Obsolete Company. Name of Line or Branch. Section of Line

Norte North line Rio to Estrella junction

Grao Para Grao Para line Maua to Sao Jose de Rio Preto

Grao Para Grao Para line Areal to Entre Rios

Parahybuna branch Entre Rios to Parahybuna

Travessao branch Travessao to Silveiro Lobo

Serraria line Serraria Ligacao

Pomba branch Guarany to Pomba

Rio Novo branch Furtado de Campos to Rio Novo

Leopoldina Centre line Porto Novo, Catazagues, Saude

Pirapetininga branch Volta Grande, Pirapetininga

Leopoldina branch Vista Alegre to Leopoldina

Mirahy branch Catazagues to Mirahy

Sereno sub-branch Sereno to Joao Pinheiro

Muriahe' line. Recreio to Santa Luiza

Muriahe' extension Santa Luzia to Manhuassu

Paraokena link Paraokena to Cysneiros

Poco Fundo link Junction to Poco Fundo

Sao Paulo branch Patrocinho, Sao Paulo de Muriahe. . . .

Cantagallo Cantagallo line. . Nictheroy to Macuco

Cantagallo Cantagallo extension Cordeiro to Portalla

Sumidouro Sumidouro branch Cons Paulino to Mello Barreto

Seaboard line Porto das Caixas to Macahe

Macah^ and Campos. . . Seaboard line Imbetiba, MacaW and Campos

Sao Fidelis Miracema line Campos Sao Fidelis

Macahe and Campos. . . Miracema line Sao Fidelis, Miracema

Macahe1 Central. Macahe' Central line Macahe to Glycerio

Araruama branch Conde de Araruama to Triumpho

Araruama branch Triumpho to Manoel de Moraes

Araruama branch Trajano de Moraes, S. M. Magdaleno.

Campista Campistan line Campos to Atafona...

Campista Campistan line Martins Lage to Colomins

Saturnina branch Campos to Santo Amaro

Mussureppe branch Martins Lage to Mussureppe.

Carangola Carangola line Campos, Murundu, Sao Antonio

Carangola Poco Fundo branch Itaperuna to Poco Fundo

Carangola Itabapoana branch Murundu, S. Eduardo Itabapoana ....

Itapemirim branch Sao Eduardo, Muniz Freyr

Itapemirim extension Muniz Freyr to Mathilde

South of Esp. Santo .... S. Espirito Santo Mathilde to Victoria

Caravellas Caravellas line Muniz Freyr to Alegre

Caravellas Caravellas branch Mattosinhos to Castello

Caravellas extension Alegre, Manhuassu, Ponte Nova

(1) Lines conceded by the government of the union, with interest guarantee.

(2) Lines conceded by the government of the union without interest guarantee.

(3) Lines conceded by the State or Province of Rio.
(6) Lines conceded by the State or Province of Minas Geraes.

otnot

e. Miles.

231

Building

112

105

Building

Such is the Leopoldina Railway
system, after ten years' time, be-
cause it should be borne in mind that
the present company took over the
lines in 1898 only. But, in spite of
its efforts and good management, the
returns have not, so far, been satis-
factory, and the dividends have
averaged 2.9 per cent only on the
cut-down capital. The results of the
company's workings are stated in the
table on the following page :

open new coffee land and to encour-
age other produce.

The coffee tonnage carried since
1899 has been as follows:

Year.

1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
1905.
1906.
1907.
1908.

Tons.

117,025
78,230
174,081
150,937
161,297
105,602
126,520
145,996
159,688
142,543

560

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

OPERATION OF THE LEOPOLDINA RAILWAY

Miles

Year. Open.

1893 1,289

1899 1,126

1900 1,142

1901 1,305

1902 1,308

1903 1,412

1904 1,423

1905 1,423

1906 1,423

1907 1,489

1908 1.542

Gross

Working

Net Revenue

Guarantee.

Fixed

Receipts.

Expenses.

Excluded.

Included.

Charges.

Dividend.

Per Cent.

541,491

460,772

80,719

105,047

46,926

526,876

398,638

128,238

142,305

59,982

558,657

448,978

109,679

187,729

78,222

840,330

547,983

292,347

343,615

106,283

856,222

565,345

290,877

350,397

114,366

831,494

546,564

284,930

338,949

129,294

800,032

550,853

249,179

323,644

143,073

1,126,167

732,845

393,322

447,468

142,423

1,182,825

780.203

402,622

477,256

144,000

1,254,557

836,443

418,114

446,018

147,456

1,206,617

829,134

377,483

402,742

174,250

In 1908, besides the 142,000 tons
of coffee a large amount of sugar,
37,752 tons, and sugar cane, 25,418
tons, has also been carried.

The other goods consist of maize,
45,779 tons; beans and cereals, 31,659
tons; salt and flour, 15,000 tons each.
Wood and stone also contribute
largely to' the goods traffic : 55,326
tons of timber, 44,624 tons of fire-
wood and 19,634 tons of stone and
sand were carried in 1908.

The receipts accruing from goods
alone were £377,000 in 1899, the
first year of the company's working,
and £323,378 in 1908, for 585,414
tons of merchandise.

During the same period passenger
traffic progressed from £99,200 to
£199,889 for 2,968,898 passengers,
and luggage and parcels from £34,-
390 in the first instance, to £58,264
in the latter. This includes dairy
and garden produce.

Only 26 per cent, of the travelers
travel first-class, but they contribute
52 per cent, of the receipts. These
were contributed as follows :

First-class passenger traffic £103,582

Second-class passenger traffic 96,307

Parcels and baggage traffic 58,264

Goods traffic 923,378

Telegraph receipts 4,179

Sundry receipts 20,906

£1,206,617

The receipts, per train-mile of
goods, were ios. iod., and the ex-
penses 7s. 5d. The net receipts were

3s- 5d.

The public train-miles were 2,230,-
909, run at a cost of £61 per 1000
miles, locomotive and traffic

The fuel consumption is low. Per
1000 ton-miles, it averages 459.3
pounds of fuel, mostly coal, and 1.47
pounds of lubricants

Vehicle lubricants and waste con-
sumption, per 1000 four-axle vehicle
miles, was 7.99 pounds.

The rolling-stock comprises 186 lo-
comotives, 231 carriages, and 1,918
wagons.

Seventeen of the locomotives are
rack engines used on the Petropolis
Serra, and nine others are special lo-
comotives for working the trains up
the Novo Friburgo Serra. Of the
remainder 69 are passenger engines.
Twelve of these are four-wheel
coupled-tank locomotives used on the
suburban trains ; 28 are four-wheel
coupled tender locomotives and 29
six-wheel coupled.

The mixed locomotives are six-
wheel coupled, and 40 in number.

The 45 goods engines are eight-
wheel coupled.

All carriages and wagons, with the
exception of 15 of the former and
198 of the latter, run on bogies.

The coaching stock comprises 74
first-class coaches, 48 second, 57 com-
posites, 5 second and van, and 20
vans.

The wagons are :

4-AxIe 2-Axle

The Wagons Are: Stock. Stock.

Covered 1,091 51

Open 512 138

Cattle 47 5

Cattle and van 22

Cattle, mail and van 16

Poultry 7

Cattle and poultry 2 ...

Tank 4 1

Inflammable 1 ...

Breakdown 16 3

Special coupler 2

1,720 198

A number of these are large-ca-
pacity steel wagons sent out from
Ensfland.

The floating stock plies on the Rio
Bay and on the Campos River ser-

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

561

vice. The Macahe and Rio Line has
been discontinued.

The bay service is maintained by
4 passenger steamers- — 3 paddle and
1 screw, 5 launches, 4 lighters and 5
pontoons. The river service by I
paddle-boat and 4 lighters, 3 of
which were destroyed in the recent
Campos floods.

The maritime service earned £11,-
692 from passengers, £5,961 from
parcels and baggage-carrying and
£58,781 from goods. The expendi-
ture was £38,596.

The following table shows the per-
centages of the several items of re-
ceipts and expenditures for the year
1908:

Receipts. Percentage.

Passengers 15 . 53

Parcels and luggage 4.33

Goods 71 . 20

Government commission 0 . 67

Miscellaneous 1.94

Maritime service-. 6 . 33

100.00

The government commission
amounts to £7,843, and is contrib-
uted by the Minas government 0.34
per cent, of the total receipts, Rio
government 0.24 per c ent. and the
Federal government 0.09 per cent.

This revenue is expended in the
following proportion :

Percentage.

Permanent way and works 20 . 10

Telegraph and electrical service 0 . 52

Rolling stock superintendence 1 . 84

Locomotive maintenance 4.91

Vehicle maintenance 4 . 75

Locomotive running 9 . 40

Vehicle running 0 . 44

Maritime service 3 . 20

Traffic expenses 16.20

Directorate and management 5 . 76

General charges 1 . 60

Net revenue 31.28

100.00

From the passengers' point of
view the train service calls for little
comment, a proof it is a good one.

There are three trains a day from
S. Francisco Xavier, the Rio termi-
nal, to Petropolis. These trains are
run through to Merity, covering 10
miles in 24 minutes. Nine suburban
trains stop at the 9 intermediate
stations, and take three-quarters of
an hour. There are besides, 13

trains from Rio to Penha, only 5
miles out of town.

Through trains are run from
Maua — where they connect with the
Rio steamers- — to Sao Geraldo, up
north, accomplishing the journey in a
day, and from Nictheroy through
Campos to Maricema, in 14 hours.
These run through to Porto das
Caixas Junction in an hour.

On the whole, the Leopoldina
Company is fairly prosperous, and,
owing to the fitness of the system to
the country it runs through, its fu-
ture seems one of the most secure in
Brazil.

MINAS, WEST OF MINAS, SOUTH
MINAS AND GOYAZ RAILWAYS.

These railways, as with those of
the Amazon watershed, are interest-
ing because of their possibilities.

The West of Minas is a govern-
ment road, the rest are in the hands
of the Sapucahi Railway Company,
including the Rio and Minas and the
Muzambinho Railways, both leased
by the government. Negotiations
have long been afoot for uniting the
four companies and for the Sapucahi
Railway to work the lot, and were it
not for the opposing influence of a
neighbouring Sao Paulo company —
the Mogyana Railway — this unifica-
tion would have been accomplished
long ago. As it is, the Muzambinho,
the Rio and Minas, with a number
of extensions, have been merged with
the Sapucahi Railway, forming, since
1 910, the South Minas Railway
Company. The center still belongs
to the West of Minas Railway, and
the northern extensions have become
the. Goyaz Railway Company. Each
of these lines we will examine suc-
cessively.

I. WEST OF MINAS RAILWAY.

At present there is no direct con-
nection between Rio and the West of
Minas Railway, and even should
the Central of Brazil Railway's
"Auxiliar" Line be handed over to it,

562

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

as seems likely, this will be of little
use under prevailing conditions.

The West of Minas trunk line
starts from Sitio, on the northern
line of the Central beyond the Man-
tiqueira hills, and runs west 158
miles, to Lavras. Thirty miles short
of Lavras, a long northerlp exten-
sion runs to Paraopeba, where the
Paraopea River falls in the Sao
Francisco River, and navigation be-
gins. This long 376-mile line has
been laid to the 2-foot 6-inch gauge.

Lavras is the middle of another
penetration-line running northwest
toward Matalao, and southeast to
Barra Mansa and Angra.

It falls short, as a matter of fact,
of all these places, and both the end-
sections have fallen into alien hands.

The Paraopeba Line was started
in 1880, from Sitio to Sao Joao del
Rey, a very important town, and
was then a 62-mile branch. In 1886
the northern extension, to the north
of the State of Minas Geraes, was
decided on. Aureliano Mourao
Junction was reached in 1887, and
Fereira in 1890. This is the nearest
point to Itapecerica, a town of some
importance 28 miles to the west, to
which a short branch leads. The
railway then continues down the
valley of the Para River. Following
the river bank for a considerable dis-
tance, it passes opposite Pitangui, on
the other bank — and connected with
it by a branch line — until some dis-
tance before it comes to the Parao-
peba River. Taking a westerly
swerve, the railway then crosses the
Sao Francisco River, at Abbadia, on
a 564-foot bridge, passes some dis-
tance from Abbaete, and follows the
Sao Francisco down to the point
where the Paraopeba River falls into
it, and beyond which navigation is
possible.

It took eight years to open the 340
miles from Sao Joao to Bara de
Paraopeba, and that with 21 inter-
mediate stations only.

All the narrow-gauge section, in-
cluding the Lawras branch, was
opened simultaneously.

The other portion was started in
1895. It is really a separate under-
taking, even as to the gauge it was
laid to — one meter — and joined to
the narrow-gauge portion by the
Lavras connection. The long Sitio
and Paraopeba Line, in the east, and
the Angra and Formiga long line, in
the west, form two long curves, turn-
ing their convexity toward each
other and belted together in the
middle.

The longitudinal line through Lav-
ras was sensibly laid to the meter
gauge. Building was carried on not
only from Lavras, north and south,
but from Barra Mansa, where it
crossed the Sao Paulo branch of the
Central Railway, both north and
south as well. The company, now
defunct, completed the line from
Lavras as far as Formiga in the
north, Arcos beyond, and had
started to work to the Upper Sao
Francisco River, which it was to
cross in Porto Real. The line was
to continue its way north to the
very depths of the State of Goyaz.

Southward from Lavras, Carran-
cas, 50 miles away, was reached,
leaving a 94-mile gap, till the north-
ern end of the branch from Barra
Mansa, which had reached Cedro, a
length of 31 miles. It crossed the
Central Railway in Barra Mansa, and
went on to Rio Claro, 27 miles far-
ther. All this had been built be-
tween 1895 and 1898. But this fine
zeal has been unrewarded, and Rio
Claro has remained the terminal
without another clump of sod being
turned to extend the line toward
Angra on the coast, only 41 miles
away. But the station of Rio Claro
is still 1,422 feet above sea level, and
though the Serra is easier to go
down here than elsewhere this is still
a very arduous piece of line.

These two sections from Barra
Mansa have been handed over to
the Central Railway, as they were
too far from the remainder of the
West of Minas system ; which is a
mistake, should the merging of the

THE RAILWAYS OF BRAZIL

563

West of Minas with the Sapucah
Railway ever take place.

The company runs a steamer serv-
ice from Lavras down the Rio
Grande River to Capetinga.

Deducting the portion handed over
to the Goyaz and to the Central Rail-
ways, the system still comprises :

Two-foot Six-inch Gauge.

Sitio to Paraopeba 376 miles-

Lavras branch 30

tapecerica branch 21

Pitanguy branch 3 "

Meter Gauge

Formiga Lavras and Carrancas 130 "

Carrancas Cedro, building 94

Rio Grande steamers 130 "

804 "

The eastern extension to Bello
Horizonte, the capital of the State
of Minas, and built to resemble
Washington, has been handed over to
the Goyaz Railway and has just been
opened to traffic.

A western extension to some point
on the Mogyana Railway, probably
from Formiga to Sacramento, about
144 miles, underestimated at £718,-
800, which would form the continua-
tion of the Bello Horizonte cross-
line, is likely to be handed over to
the same company whose Araxa
Uberaba branch would serve the
same purpose.

The West of Minas Company got
into trouble, then into debt, and
finally into the hands of their credi-
tors, so that the line is now govern-
ment property.

The metre lines are worked at a
deficit; though, owing to the receipts
of the other parts, the whole system
is not worked at a loss ; it just covers
working expenses, with a little to
spare. This result, disastrous for a
private company, is a good one for a
government road, because the line
opens up a large tract of country,
and taxation brings profits in an in-
direct manner.

Strange to note, curves and gradi-
ents of the metre line are harder
and more frequent than those of the
2- foot 6-inch section :

Metre Section.

Curves 330 feet radius.

57 per cent, of the line.
Gradients 1 in 40 , f, iv

60 per cent, of the line.
Two-foot Six-inch Section.
Curves 238 feet radius.

42 per cent, of the line.
Gradients 1 in 45

42 per cent, of the line.

Consider the cost of working such
a line, where there are more curves
than alignments and more grades
than level stretches.

There are many bridges on the
long northern extension.

The Rio das Mortes bridge, 123d
miles, is 180 feet long in three equal
spans.

The Sao Francisco River, 326th
mile, is crossed on a six-span 594-
foot bridge.

The Jacare is crossed twice on two
200-foot bridges.

. The metre-gauge section is carried
across the Rio Grande on a two-span,
2 10- foot bridge, one span 210 feet,
the other no, and across the Capi-
vary River, 26th mile, on a 320-foot
bridge, in two equal spans. There is
an almost endless number of other
bridges of all sizes.

The steamer service down the Rio
Grande has been maintained. The
fleet comprises five stern-wheel
steamers, an inspection and eight
freight launches.

Three Yarrow steamers are 81 feet
long, 20 feet broad and 4 feet deep,
carrying 30 passengers, 12 first and
18 second class. The stern-wheel is
14 feet 6 inches diameter; the cylin-
ders of two of them are 13 13/16
inches diameter by 31^ inches
stroke ; the other has compound en-
gines.

The fourth, built by Forest &
Sons, is a little smaller; it is 69 feet
long, 13^ feet broad and 41^ inches
deep. The stern-wheel is 9 feet 2
13/16 inches diameter; the engines
has compound engines and a stem
are compound. It carries 16 pas-
sengers, as does the last steamer built
by Lobnitz.

THE MECHANICAL PURIFICATION OF AIR

By C. L. Browne

THE problem of air purification
on a commercial scale has been
brought to the front by the
wider introduction of the plenum sys-
tem of heating and ventilation. The
removal from the air of the float-
ing particles of dust, soot and other
impurities constitutes, especially in
densely populated or manufacturing
towns, the most serious difficulty in
the science of ventilation. The im-
portance of this problem will be fully
appreciated when it is borne in mind
that with plenum ventilation the fans
installed completely change, several
times within each hour, the whole of
the air in the building which they
are ventilating. The volumes of air
handled are in many cases enormous.
In a public building recently com-
pleted in Scotland the heating and
ventilating plant has a total capacity
of over 212,000 cubic feet of air per
minute.

It is thus evident that where large
volumes of fresh air are hourly
driven into buildings an infinitesimal
degree of impurity in the air will,
in a very short time cause a dirty
and insanitary deposit.

The necessity, however, for the
efficient ventilation of public halls,
buildings and factories was early
recognized, and the fan system of in-
troducing fresh, warmed air into both
new and existing buildings was
adopted in America and later into
England, even though a certain degree
of uncleanliness was involved.

The cruder and less efficient
methods of air filtration have
been superseded by more carefully
thought-out and better designed ap-
paratus.

The existing forms of air filter

564

may be roughly divided into five
classes: (1) the dry stationary; (2)
the wet stationary and the (3) wet
revolving filters; (4) the spray noz-
zle and the (5) revolving spray
wheel types.

Perhaps the earliest type of filter
used was the dry stationary, which
consisted essentially of cheese cloth
screens, placed at right angles to
the path of the entering air.

Filters of this class, whether em-
ploying cotton, jute or cocoanut
fibre as filtering mediums, were
found to have only a crude cleans-
ing effect upon the air, and after a
short period of working, became
dirty and insanitary, and thus be-
coming in themselves a source of im-
purity, soon defeated their own ob-
ject.

In addition to the above disad-
vantage, all filters of this class offer
a high resistance to the passage of
air. The extent to which a small re-
sistance cuts down the capacity of a
centrifugal fan is well known, and
the increased power required to drive
the fans under these conditions mili-
tates seriously against the commercial
success of the plant.

These filters have the further dis-
advantage that they do not affect in
any way the humidity of the air
handled, and it is now recognized
that absolute control of the amount
of moisture in the air is an essential
qualification in a successful heating
and ventilating apparatus.

Dry air produces a more rapid
evaporation of moisture from the
surface of the human body, and this
causes a lower sensible temperature.
As a matter of fact the sensible tem-
perature of the body corresponds

PURIFICATION OF; AIR

565

more nearly to that of the wet bulb
of a hygrometer, than to the tem-
perature of the dry bulb. Air at
68° Fahr., containing 50 per cent,
humidity, feels more comfortable
than air at 75 ° Fah., having a hu-
midity of only 20 per cent.

With an outside winter tempera-
ture of 300 Fah., and 80 per cent,
saturation, the air will contain 1.5
grains of moisture per cubic foot.
If, without the addition of moisture,
its temperature be raised to, say, 70 °
Fah., its saturation will be only 19.5
per cent., since air at this tempera-
ture is capable of absorbing 8 grains
of moisture per cubic foot. Under
the latter conditions the atmosphere
will greedily absorb moisture from
the human body.

Apart from its effect on health,
the control of the humidity of the
air has its industrial value and per-
haps its most important applications
lie in the textile industry.

Although the westerly winds that
blow in from across the wide ex-
panse of the Atlantic are, as a rule,
laden with moisture and thus pro-
duce atmospheric conditions such as
are favorable to the great Lanca-
shire cotton industry, the east winds
that often prevail coming to Eng-
land across the continent of Europe
are comparatively dry, since their
short passage over the North Sea
does not permit of much moisture
being taken up. Thus it is frequently
necessary to resort to artificial means
for producing the required degree
of humidification. The plenum sys-
tem which gives the right volume of
air at the required temperature and
humidity, is universally admitted to
bring about increased production,
stronger, more elastic and more
evenly twisted yarn and a better and
brighter cloth.

Absolute control of humidity is es-
sential also in cooling and low tem-
perature drying, as will be later ex-
plained .

Thus we find the application of
water to the stationary filter with the
double object of increasing the hu-

midity of the air, and at the same
time of cleansing the filter from
the impurities that in the ordinary
course become lodged therein.

The method usually adopted is to
erect vertical screens of fibrous ma-
terial and to extend horizontally
above their upper edges a copper
pipe along the bottom of which a
series of small, closely-pitched holes
have been drilled. The pipe is then
supplied with water whence it is-
sues in a number of fine jets, which
are directed upon the filtering
medium. Experience has proved
that neither has this method a fully-
controlled effect upon the humidity
of the air dealt with, nor have the
jets of water the desired cleansing
effect upon the filter.

Unfortunately ventilating installa-
tions in many large towns have to
deal with a smoky atmosphere in
which the chief solid impurity is soot.
Minute particles of the latter become
lodged in the interstices of the fib-
rous material, and require for their
removal a far more drastic treat-
ment than that obtained by the ac-
tion of water trickling down the
screen by the action gravity.

Indeed, in order to lessen the high
resistance of such filters to the pas-
sage of air, the filtering cloth is,
where installed, woven with a com-
paratively wide mesh, and a very
considerable percentage of solid mat-
ter passes right through the screen
without becoming entrapped by the
cloth. There is a practical difficulty
in getting sooty particles to adhere
to a wetted surface for a sufficient
length of time to enable them to be
flushed away. Any observant dwel-
ler in our industrial centers will have
noticed small particles of soot danc-
ing freely along upon the surface of
water under the influence of small
gusts of wind. It was the recogni-
tion of these difficulties that brought
about the introduction of the revolv-
ing screen.

This type of filter, which has been
made in units large enough to deal
50,000 cubic feet of air per minute,

566

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

consists essentially of a hollow cy-
lindrical framework, constructed of
galvanized steel, the periphery being
covered with the filtering cloth. The
cylinder is mounted upon a shaft
which revolves in gun-metal bear-
ings, the bottom of the drum being
immersed in a tank of water. The
filter is driven by rope or belt, or
by direct coupled motor.

Air, being drawn through the fil-
ter by the ventilating fans, enters the
latter at the ends and passes out
through the wetted material which
covers the periphery. The humidity
of the air is controlled by regulat-
ing the peripheral speed of the filter
with reference to the radial velocity
of the air, the greater the peripheral
speed of the filter with reference to
the radial velocity of the air, the
more highly saturated the cocoanut
fibre is maintained by passing more
frequently through the water in the
tank, and the humidity of the air is
increased in consequence.

This filter, however, is subject in
a less degree to the disadvantages of
the previously mentioned types, and
it has further been found in practice
that a portion of the impurities de-
posited on the surface of the water
is picked up again by the filtering
mediums as it leaves the tank.

We may now lay down the five
main points in an air filter essential
to its scientific and commercial suc-
cess :

(i) The air must be thoroughly
cleansed. (2) Its humidity must be
under complete control; (3) the fil-
ter must be self-cleansing; (4) offer
small resistance to the passage of air
and (5) require the minimum of
running attention.

The fourth type of filter referred
to at the commencement of this ar-
ticle is that which has as its charac-
teristic feature the use of the spray
nozzle. In this apparatus all fibrous
material is dispensed with, the de-
signers being firmly of the opinion
that in all woven material, if the
mesh is fine enough to be effective,

not only is the resistance offered to
the passage of the air considerable,
but that it is practically impossible
to properly cleanse the material from
the solid impurities that become en-
meshed therein. The air to be
cleansed passes through a chamber
in which are fixed a number of speci-
ally-designed nozzles. The water is
forced through these nozzles at a
minimum pressure of about 20
pounds per square inch, the path
through the nozzle is spiral in
direction and the water acquiring a
circular motion accumulates sufficient
centrifugal force to cause it to burst
into a fine spray as it leaves the out-
let. The water is thus so minutely
divided that its intimate intermixture
with the air is assured. Although
the nozzles have an orifice of only
about 3/32 inch in diameter, each
can vent between 3 pounds and 4
pounds of water per minute when
supplied at the pressure stated.
They are placed in the spray cham-
ber at the rate of two nozzles for
every square foot of cross sectional
area, and as the usual air velocity
through the washer is about 500 feet
per minute, the nozzles deliver about
1^2 gallons of water per 1000 cubic
feet of air. per minute. Thus in a
plant dealing with 50,000 cubic feet
of air per minute 200 nozzles would
be required.

Fig. 1 is a diagrammatic represen-
tation of the fan and filter com-
bined. The water pressure required
by the nozzles is generaly set up by
a small centrifugal pump which
draws its supply from a circulating
tank in which the level is maintained
by a ball float and valve which regu-
lates the influx of water in accord-
ance with the amount absorbed by
the air.

The effect of the almost-impalpable
mist produced by these spray nozzles
in the path of the air is such that
it is practically impossible for any
solid impurities to pass through the
spray chamber without being thor-
oughly wetted. The greater part of
the water falls to the bottom of the

PURIFICATION OF AIR

5^7

- PASS OAMPER
CONTROLLED BY

THEBMOSTAT.

FIG. 1. DIAGRAMS OF FAN AND AIR FILTER

washer, carrying with it a portion of
the arrested impurities.

A certain portion of the spray,
however, is carried along by the air
current, and to prevent this free mois-
ture from being borne into the build-
ing it is arranged for the air to pass
through a separator before leaving
the washer.

This separator consists of a series
of galvanized steel plates about 18
B. W. G., in thickness, pitched about
% inch apart. The sheets are bent
as shown in Fig. 2, which gives a
sectional plan of the sheets as ar-
ranged in the washer. They are gen-

erally fixed about 4 corrugations
deep as shown in the figure. The
spray following the direction of the
arrows infringes against these plates,
the surfaces being usually covered
with a thin film of water as far as
A, but the projections at A and B
formed by the lap of the plates pre-
vent the egress of free moisture
from the filter. It will be noted that
the wetted surfaces of the separator
form an additional washing area
equivalent to about 16 square feet
for each square foot of cross sec-
tional area of the filter. The separa-
tor plates are, owing to the constant

568

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FIG. 2. HORIZOW 1AL SECTION THROUGH SEPARATOR PLATE:

dashing of fresh water against them,
self-cleansing; but provision is made
for flushing the plates at any time by
the simple operation of turning on a
water tap.

In the earlier designs of separator
of this type ordinary sheets of com-
mercial corrugated iron were used,
but the form shown above is much
superior.

This is a most ingenious air
washer and humidifier, and has met
with a large measure of success in
difficult situations. The theory em-
bodied in its design is, of course,
that given a sufficient volume of
water, broken up to the required de-
gree of fineness, and provided that
the velocity of the entering air does
not exceed that arranged for, no par-
ticle of foreign matter can pass
through the spray zone without be-
ing wetted. Those particles which
do not fall to the bottom of the spray
chamber with the water are carried
along into the separator, and their in-
ertia being increased by the added
moisture, strike against the wetted
plates and are washed down into the
tank.

There is, however, a danger

breaking up the water too finely.
The celebrated "London fog" con-

sists of just such particles of soot
impregnated with moisture as de-
scribed above, but so small that the
effect of their inertia towards caus-
ing them to strike against the separa-
tor plates when passing through it
would be almost negligible. How-
ever, in tests with carefully arranged
washers of this type, when an ample
supply of water has been provided,
990 of lamp black, when thrown into
the spray zone, has deposited in the
washer.

The spray nozzle filter also gives a
very efficient control over the hu-
midity of the air handled. This is
chiefly effected by varying the tem-
perature of the air in the spray
chamber, thus taking advantage of
the fact that the capacity of the air
for absorbing moisture varies with
the temperature of the former. Thus,
if air be raised in temperature from
500 Fah. to yo° Fah., its capacity
for holding moisture is doubled.

Suppose that it is desired to keep
the air in a building at 70 ° Fah.,
with 50 per cent humidity, and
that the outside temperature is
360 Fah., it would first be neces-
sary to raise its temperature either
in the spray chamber by using
hot water in the nozzles, or bv

PURIFICATION OF AIR

569

FIG. 3. REVOLVING SPEAY WHEEL AIR WASHER

passing the air through steam-
heated tempering coils before enter-
ing the washer. The air could then
be completely saturated at 50 ° Fah.
when it would be drawn through the
main heater coils to raise its tem-
perature to 70 ° Fah. Whereas air at
500 Fah. can only hold 4 grains of
moisture in suspension, when raised
to yo° Fah. it can absorb 8 grains.
Consequently air delivered into the
building at yo° Fah. would have 50
per cent, humidity.

It might appear at first sight that
humidifying the air might result in
the condensation of moisture upon
the window panes. All danger of
this can be obviated, however, by
maintaining the temperature in the
spray chamber never higher than the
mean between the temperature of the
room and that of the external air.
To take as an example the conditions
assumed above, namely: inside and
outside temperatures of 70 ° Fah. and
50° Fah., respectively, if the tem-
perature of the spray chamber is
less than 6o° Fah. condensation on
the windows is an impossibility, since
the latter are themselves at a tem-
perature which is a mean between
the inside and outside temperatures,
and is consequently unable to lower
the air to its dew-point.

By control over the humidity of
the air its temperature in summer
can be lowered considerably, except
on such occasions, rare in England,
when the atmospheric heat is ac-
companied by excessively high hu-
midity. It has been proved in
practice that an absorption by the

air at from .8 to .9 grains of mois-
ture per cubic foot produces a lower-
ing of the temperature of from 70
Fah. to 8° Fah.

In cases where excessively high
humidities are met with the air can
be thoroughly washed without in-
creasing its moisture by using in-
stead of moisture a solution of cal-
cium chloride 28 degrees Baume.
This solution will neither give out
nor absorb moisture.

If the strength of the solution be
increased to, say, 40 degrees Baume,
it will actually extract moisture from
the air, and in difficult cases, such as
low temperature drying, a strong so-
lution of calcium chloride has been
used. It should be added that in
modern plants the humidity and tem-
perature of the air are automatically
controlled by thermostats suitably
placed. The last type of filter enu-
merated at the commencement of this
article is that in which the place of
the nozzle is taken by a revolving
spray wheel. A diagrammatic sec-
tional view of such a washer is
shown in Fig. 3.

This washer was designed with a
special view to preventing the fine
mist in the spray chamber from be-
ing carried away through the separa-
tor along with the solid impurities
that should be eliminated. It is ob-
vious that the cleansing and humidi-
fying effect of the spray becomes
small as the latter tends to become
stationary with reference to the air,
which occurs when the water is car-
ried along in the air current. The
increased humidifying effect ob-

57°

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

tained by opposing the direction of
discharge from the nozzles in the
previous filter to that in which the
air is moving is most marked. The
strong current of air, however, soon
reverses the direction in which the
atoms of spray were originally pro-
jected, and owing to their lightness
carries them in suspension.

When a fine spray is used for the
purposes under consideration, it is
necessary in the first place that the
water be in motion with reference
to the air; secondly, they must at any
moment occupy the whole cross-sec-
tional area of the washer in suffi-
cient numbers to effectually cleanse
the passing air, and thirdly the water
must be broken up to just that de-
gree of fineness requisite to produce
the desired humidification. In addi-
tion to complying with the above con-
ditions, it is claimed that the spray
wheel, throwing off the water in a
direction at right angles to the path
of the air, gives the former sufficient
momentum to prevent its being de-
flected from its path and carried
away.

The tendency of a moving current
of air towards entraining the finely-
divided drops of water depends upon
the pressure exerted upon them.

This pressure in kilo, under con-
ditions of velocity and area obtained
in practice is for plane surfaces

v*
P = K W A

where W — the weight of i cubic
meter of air in kilos, A = the plane
surface of the drop in square metre,
v = the relative velocity between air
and plane in metres, g = the accel-
leration due to gravity (9.81) K =
a numerical coefficient.

According to Grashof, this coeffi-
cient is largely dependent upon the
size of the surface and is for sur-
faces of

K.= 1.86, 2.0*, 2.18, 2.34, 2.51, 2.69
sq. m. 1.00, 0.25, .5 , 1.00, 2.00, 4.00

Thus K decreases with decreasing
surface and consequently the more
finely divided the spray, the greater

is the entraining effect of the air
upon it in proportion to the size
of its particles.

Guided by recent results as to the
resistance offered by the air to the
passage of small spherical projectiles,
it can probably be assumed that the
value of K = .55 when the sectional
area of spherical drops is from .1 to
.01 square metre millimetre.

The air pressure on the floating
drops would then be

0.55 W. A. v2
P =

The globule of liquid has been as-
sumed to be spherical, but this is
only the case when forces continue
to act evenly upon it. Whereas the
unbalanced air pressure soon flattens
the side upon which the pressure is
exerted, and by increasing its area
increases also the value of K.

This circumstance, which is be-
yond ordinary calculation, must be
neglected, although it tends to in-
crease the pressure on the drop.

When a drop of water is loosened
from a fixed point and falls, neglect-
ing friction, its velocity y after a
time t and a height h through
which it has fallen are connected by
the well-known equations

-'=4

g g

When a drop of water falling
vertically meets a horizontal current
of air, the former is deflected from
its vertical path. If the horizontal
pressure On the drop, as expressed in
equation (2), commences at the mo-
ment of its fall and is equal to its
weight, the drop falls at an angle of
450 with the vertical, since its ver-
tical and horizontal accelerations are
equal. If under the same conditions
the air pressure is several times as
great as the weight of the drop, the
directions of fall may approach the
horizontal. Should the drop, how-
ever, have fallen vertically through
some distance before meeting the
side current, its deflection from the

PURIFICATION OF AIR

571

HORIZONTAL. PRESSURE = VERTICAL. PRESSURE

FIG. 4. DEFLECTION OF FALLING DROPS

572

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

vertical is considerably less, since in
equal time intervals the vertical ve-
locity is greater than the horizontal.

Thus the danger of the drop being
carried away in the air current is
very much less. This is made clear
by the diagram in Fig. 4. It is on
the above facts that the design of
the spray wheel air washer is based.

Referring again to Fig. 3, the
spray wheel is mounted on a turned
shaft supported in two bearings
within a tubular casing. The shaft
is direct-coupled to an electric motor,
the speed of which can be varied by
field regulation. The water supply
to the wheel is controlled by a small
belt-driven centrifugal pump which
raises the water from the circulating
tank. The water is thrown at a high
velocity from the periphery of the
spray wheel which travels at a lineal
speed of not less than 6000 feet per
minute, and consequently its deflec-
tion by the air current is practically
nil. The "carry over" of free mois-
ture into the separator due to the
water splashing against the sides of
the casing is very small in amount.

Any floating dust or other im-
purity in the air, on entering the
spray zone is dashed and hammered
against the sides of the casing,
whence it is washed down by gravity
into the tank below.

The finest of the spray, and con-
sequently the degree of humidity
given to the air is regulated by vary-
ing the speed of the wheel, and the
quantity of water in circulation is
controlled by a handcock.

The resistance offered to the air in
passing through the washer is negli-
gible, and its self-cleansing proper-

ties are obvious, indeed this air puri-
fier conforms in a remarkable degree
to the conditions laid down earlier
in this article.

One of these washers was supplied
recently in connection with the
plenum ventilation plant for a large
public building in Glasgow, where
the problem of cleansing the air was
aggravated by the necessity for tak-
ing in the air at the roof level. In
less than five minutes after starting
up the water in the circulating tank
was discolored and a film of soot was
seen to be floating on its surface.

The introduction of pleum ventila-
tion into England has caused the
springing up of a new and important
industry, and that one of its most
serious problems has been tackled in
a thorough and scientific manner, and
with a growing measure of success
has been sufficiently indicated in this
article.

The introduction of pure, warm,
humidified air into public buildings
by the scientifically-designed appara-
tus of the present day, enables the
city dweller to enjoy one of the de-
lights of a country walk on a sum-
mer's evening, after a heavy down-
pour of rain has refreshed and puri-
fied the air.

In conclusion, the writer wishes to
express his indebtedness to Mr. Ju-
lius Hanna, whose name is identified
with original research work in the
science of ventilation. It was owing
to the courtesy of Mr. Hanna in his
capacity as manager for Messrs.
Musgrave & Co., of Belfast, that the
writer was enabled to make a series
of interesting tests of the "Rainbow"
purifier manufactured by his firm.

(ttuvvzut topics

AN interesting bit of engineering
history, or rather antiquarian-
ism, appears in the accom-
panying illustrations, sent to us by
Mr. H. Maplethorpe, of Darlston.

Steam boilers naturally are much
shorter lived than the steam engines
which they serve, and hence actual
examples of old-time boilers are
much fewer than of old engines.
The haystack type, one of the earliest,
is now practically extinct, and hence
the illustrations and data concerning
this boiler are of especial interest.

This boiler is situated at No. 9
Colliery, Pelsall, Staffordshire, where
it was photographed and measured
by Mr. Maplethorpe, and the accom-
panying sketch made. It is com-
posed of 49 irregular-shaped plates
of various sizes, arranged in four
tiers, with a circular plate at the top.
The central portion of the under-
side of the boiler is formed of two
semi-circular plates. The seams are
single-riveted, and some of the joints
match each other, while others are
staggered.

The first tier has 17 plates, the
second 16 and the top and bottom
tiers have each 13 plates. The height
of the first tier is 3 feet, while the
second is 3 feet 4 inches. There is
a blow-off cock at the bottom of the

OLD HAYSTACK BOILER

boiler, while a feed-pipe is placed 2
feet from the bottom.

As shown in the sketch, there is a
2^2-inch pipe fitted inside of the
boiler, with a projecting arm, indi-
cated at A, B and C. This was
probably some portion of the old-
time float-and-chain water-gauge and
feed arrangement.

It is unfortunate that such relics

573

574

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

*2Vh!

SKETCH OF OLD HAYSTACK BOILER

are allowed to go to the scrap-heap,
or rust away, and it seems desirable
that this old boiler should be pre-
served in some technical school or
public museum.

PAINT is one of the most impor-
tant compounds with which the
engineer has to deal. Yet it is
one that receives very little attention.
Mr. Depieires, who wrote a paper on
the subject of paints before the Paint
and Varnish Society some time ago,
called attention to what was desira-
ble in paints and painting. Thus, to
begin with, an iron surface to be
painted should be of that clean metal-
lic gray colour which may be seen
in a properly pickled surface. To our
mind, the best surface of iron on
which to paint is one that has been
first cleaned from grease by a strong
alkaline wash and then pickled in
weak acid and washed clean of all
the acid. Then it should be washed
in hot water and painted on the sur-
face that has dried out by the stored
heat derived from the hot water. The
paint should be put on warm and
free from water, and well brushed in
to remove air bubbles. This first coat
should dry hard and should be lightly
rubbed down to open any air vesci-
cles before the next coat is applied.
Each succeeding coat should be a

trifle more elastic than its predeces-
sor. We fully recognize the cheap
folly of air-sprayed paint. Such work
is only fit for the application of
coloured water washes to suit tem-
porary structures, as exhibition build-
ings of the flimsy order. The paints
must, of course, be thoroughly mixed
with the proper ratios of pigments
and of oil. Now, all this is exceed-
ingly sound, but it is a most difficult
matter to carry out. For example,
in bridge and girder work. These
structures are prepared in the work-
shop and are machined, and more or
less smeared with various oils or
greases, and they never are cleaned,
but are built into place, and painted
probably in moist weather without
having been cleaned or dried in any
way. And when a girder is painted,
what is done to ensure that water is
dried out from the narrow crevices
between adjoining surfaces? Just
nothing. But in theory such parts
should be made hot and painted free-
ly and made to absorb paint so as to
shut out all entry of subsequent
moisture.

Mr. Depieires prefers sand blast
cleaning methods to such methods as
scraping and steel brushes. Rust is
the great enemy to contend with.
Rust has the property of carrying
oxygen so that it spreads from a cen-
ter and will creep insidiously under
paint. Ironwork almost invariably
fails by corrosion in spots. These
spots show up very plainly, and ought
to be scraped and sand blasted and
at once repainted. The whole sur-
face need not be repainted unless the
spotted surface is objected to.

The process might be expensive,
but we venture to say that if the
parts of bridges are properly cleaned
in the shop and dipped hot in oil,
this being brushed in and off, such
pieces could next be painted once in
the shop and finished in place and
would show no rust spotting if pe-
riodically painted. But most struc-
tural painting is only the hiding of
rust, for it does not seem to be the
practice to remove rust thoroughly be-
fore painting.

DR. GISBERT KAPP, M.I.C.E., M.LE.E.

Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of Birmingham and President of the

Institution of Electrical Engineers

A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

IN the electrical world there is no
better known figure than that of
Dr. Gisbert Kapp, M. I. C. E.,
M. I. E. E., and president of the In-
stitution of Electrical Engineers. Dr.
Kapp is an Austrian by birth, though
of German-Scottish parentage, and is
a naturalized Englishman. He was
born at Mauer, near Vienna, in 1852,
and at an early age he showed a
strong bent towards the profession
of engineering, and for a number of
years pursued his scientific studies in
the Zurich Polytechnic School. After
completing his education there, he
spent twelve months on board ship in
hard practical work in the engine
room, during which time he gained
much valuable experience. At the
age of twenty he obtained his first
appointment as engineer in a German
factory.

He came to England from Vienna
when about twenty-two years of age,
obtaining almost immediately the post
of chief draughtsman to the well-
known engineering firm of Messrs.
Gwynne & Co., of London, with
whom he remained for five years.

In 1879 ne became the technical
representative of Messrs. Hornsby &
Sons, Ltd., agricultural implement
makers, of Grantham, and traveled
for the firm in many parts of Europe
and the East, including Italy, Rus-
sia, Egypt, Cyprus and Algiers,
studying the varying conditions un-
der which agriculture was pursued in
those countries, and adapting the
various steam machines to the special
needs of each locality. A visit to
the Paris Exhibition of 1881 proved
to be the turning point of his career,

as it was of more than one other
engineer. It was the first occasion
on which an electrical exhibition of
any importance had been available to
the student, and it made a deep im-
pression upon him — so deep, indeed,
that he resolved then and there to de-
vote himself for the future to the
practical study of electricity, of
which he foresaw the enormous ca-
pabilities. For this reason, in 1881,
after two years spent with Messrs.
Hornsby, he threw up his appoint-
ment and gave himself up entirely to
electrical engineering.

In 1882 he returned to London and
obtained an appointment with Messrs.
Crompton & Co., of Chelmsford.
Colonel Crompton made him general
manager of the works, and he be-
came closely associated with that
gentleman during the early stages of
the development of his firm. They
collaborated in a system of com-
pound winding for dynamos, and
Professor Kapp was already at work
on the first of the long series of
patents which have made his name
known all over the civilized world.

In 1894 he was offered and ac-
cepted the post of General Secretary
of a newly founded scientific society
in Germany, the Verband Deutscher
Elektrotechniker, or Association of
German Electrical Engineers. This
position he filled for ten years, at the
same time acting as editor of the so-
ciety's paper, the Elektrotechnische
Zeitschrift. He also held the ap-
pointment of Lecturer on Electrical
Engineering in the Charlottenberg
Technical University.

When, in 1904, it was decided to

575.

576

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

endow a separate chair of electrical
engineering in the Birmingham Uni-
versity, it was felt that the one man
pre-eminently fitted to fill it was Pro-
fessor Kapp, whose brilliant abilities
had gained for him a European repu-
tation in electrical science. He was,
therefore, offered the position, which
he decided to accept. He began his
active duties in connection with the
Chair in October, 1905, and his per-
sonality soon made itself felt in the
department over which he has con-
trol. The equipment of this depart-
ment in the new university buildings
at Bournbrook has been entirely un-
der his direction, and it is no exag-
geration to say that no more finely
equipped laboratories at present exist
in any of the universities or technical
schools in England or in other coun-
tries.

Professor Kapp has been a volu-
minous writer upon electrical science,
and, in addition to many papers
printed in the transactions of the
leading scientific societies, both of
Great Britain and of the Continent,
has published a number of books.

Professor Kapp holds the honorary

degree of Doctor of Engineering in
two German universities, and is a
Master of Science of the Birming-
ham University. He is an honorary
member of the Physical Society of
Frankfort, one of the oldest and
most important of German scientific
bodies, and a member of the English
Institution of Civil Engineers. He
has served three times on the Coun-
cil of the Institution of Electrical
Engineers, from 1891 to 1893, and
in 1905-6, and was vice-president
from 1907-1909. Last November a
still higher honor was paid to him in
his election to the presidentship of
the institution. For two years he
was- the chairman of committee of
the Birmingham branch of this insti-
tution, and he has also served as
president of the Birmingham Uni-
versity Engineering Society.

Professor Kapp, who married in
1884 Miss Theresa Mary Krall, has
two sons, the elder of whom has be-
gun practical work in engineering
with the well-known firm of Brown-
Boveri & Co., in Switzerland, while
the younger is still studying in the
Birmingham University.

Ipamtfactoiug Hexus

Waterproofing Compounds

BOTH in the cold storage vaults
of the new Gimble Building,
in New York, now nearly com-
pleted, and in the cold storage de-
partments of the new Terminal
Building of the Pennsylvania Rail-
road, in order to insure the
most perfect damp-resisting sur-
faces, all cement used on and between
the walls, ceiling, columns, etc., was
treated with Lapadas compound
throughout. The effectiveness of this
waterproofing compound, which is
readily taken up by the gauging
water and equally distributed into
every part of the mass, thereby assur-
ing uniform efficiency, is now greatly
appreciated, as it is found to possess
advantages that have long been
sought. Still another purpose for
which Lapadas is being much used is
as a waterproof lining for the stor-
age tanks used in the manufacture
of ice. It has been found that a
i-inch lining applied to the inside of
such tanks, after the forms have been
pulled, without treatment of the mass
at all, will, even though such tanks
are subject to variations in tem-
perature from below zero to 80 de-
grees above, give the most satisfac-
tory results.

St. Louis Aero Show

AT the Coliseum Building, St.
Louis, from November 17 to
24, will be held the St. Louis
National Aero Show. This show is
under the auspices of the Aero Club,
and will be a very full exhibition of
air vehicles of every practical type
and accessories, as well as materials,
used in their manufacture. Present
indications all point to a most inter-
esting and successful exhibition. Full
information can be obtained from
Mr. G. L. Holton, Manager, Coli-
seum Building, Chicago.

Concrete Coast Defenses

RECENT tests at Sandy Hook of
the resisting power of rein-
forced concrete as a defense
against high-powered projectiles con-
firm the calculations of the penetrat-
ing power of the 12-inch gun. A
concrete wall, 20 feet thick, heavily
reinforced with steel beams, was
pierced by a 12-inch projectile fired
at high velocity. The blow delivered
was sufficient to penetrate 22 inches
of armor plate, and the reinforced
concrete withstood the attacks so well
that it will probably be used in the
construction of the new coast defense
fortifications in the Philippines.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

WESTINGHOUSE UTILITY MOTOR POLISHING IN THE HOME

Westinghouse General Utility Motor

THE general utility motor now
being placed upon the market
by the Westinghouse Electric
& Manufacturing Company marks
the latest advance in the application
of electric motors to household con-
venience. By means of its special
attachments the motor can be adapted
to a variety of uses about the house.
The new motor commends itself
heartily to the favour of central sta-
tion companies, as it provides another
wedge for the introduction of electri-
city into the home. Furthermore, it
is essentially a day load. The motor
takes from 40 to 120 watts for its
operation.

The general utility motor can be
readily arranged to operate the fol-
lowing devices : Family sewing ma-
chine, buffing, polishing and grind-
ing wheels, ventilating blower, jew-
elers' lathe, light machinery, small

lathes, sign flasher, moving-window
display, mechanical toys, etc. The
motor is sold complete with one or
more attachments. Further attach-
ments can be obtained by the pur-
chaser as desired. A different at-
tachment is not necessary for every
one of the uses mentioned above, as
some of the attachments make the
motor available for several pur-
poses without change. The general
utility ventilating outfit is one of
the features of the new apparatus.
The small blower will supply fresh
air to the kitchen, increase the draft
of a furnace, remove foul air from
sick rooms, and readily adapt itself
to any small ventilating work. By
fitting the blower openings with suit-
able pipe, air currents can be directed
wherever desired.

The general utility motors are made
for operation on 115 and 230-volt
direct-current circuits, and on no

MANUFACTURING NEWS

and 220-volt alternating circuits of
60 and 133 cycles. The direct-cur-
rent motors are shunt-wound, while
the alternating current motors are
of the induction type, single-phase.
The motors run at a speed of
1,700 revolutions per minute. The
motor is light and can be easily
carried from place to place by means
of a handle in the top of the frame.
It is artistically finished in black
enamel to harmonize with the other
house decorations. The applications
of the attachments are positive ; it
is impossible to put them on wrong.

Rubber Mats for Power Houses

A RUBBER rug designed for
use in power houses, ele-
vators, depots, hotels, offices
and public buildings has just been
placed in the -market by the Es-
sex Rubber Company of Trenton,
N. J. This firm, so well known
for its engineering specialties, such as
valves, gaskets and moulded or other
rubber articles, which they manufac-
ture in hundreds of odd shapes, quali-
ties and consistencies, and which are
used in almost every branch of en-
gineering or manufacturing work,
has produced a rubber rug of great
beauty and utility. It is a heavy rug
of new and novel construction, made
to take the place of perforated mats
and other floor covering which
are easily injured. In fact, their
new rug is designed for hard and
heavy service and is well adapted
for it. The Essex rug is reversible,
repairable, and can be rolled up tight
and stood on end without injury, and
contains no cloth or other fabric to
rot or break. It has a semi-invisible
metallic re-enforcement, thus making
it practically indestructible, while its
handsome appearance, combined with
its great utility, makes it the most
economical article of its kind yet
produced. Those interested in ma-
terial of this character would do well
to write the Essex Rubber Company
for descriptive matter, color plates,
etc.

Tbe Romance of Astronomy

THE steady demand for books
of popular astronomy seems
to have more to do with
the romance of the subject than
with the desire for scientific knowl-
edge. Even the astronomers give
the inexhaustible mystery of the sub-
ject— its constant stimulus to the
imagination — as the best reason for
studying and writing about it. Gar-
rett P. Serviss says in "Round the
Year With the Stars," his latest
volume, "The writer's only real ex-
cuse for appearing again in this
particular field is that he has never
yet finished a book and seen it go
forth without feeling that he had
overlooked or cast aside a multi-
tude of things quite as interesting
as any he had touched upon. Ac-
cordingly, he yields once more to the
lure of this illimitable subject, and
strives again to find expression for
the thoughts it continually awakens
and to exhibit the endless procession
of marvels which streams before him
who knows and loves the stars." —
Harper & Brothers, New York.

The annual meeting of the Ameri-
can Street and Interurban Railway
Association will be held at Atlantic
City, N. J., October 10 to 14 next.

"Handling Coal" is the title of
Bulletin No. 42 just issued by the
Jeffrey Manufacturing Company of
Columbus, Ohio. It is illustrated by
photographic views, showing the ac-
tual installations where Jeffrey con-
veyors are used in some prominent
places, and describes by text and il-
lustration the various types of
screens, roll crushers, pulverizers,
hoists, dump cars, larries, electric lo-
comotives and coal cutting and con-
veying machinery manufactured by
them. The same company has also
issued a small book which might
well be called a Story Without
Words, as it describes mainly by il-
lustrations their methods of handling
and treating stone, ore, sand, gravel,
cement, etc. Copies of this publica-
tion will be sent on application.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Industrial Education for the Employed

THE supplementary instruction
of men already employed in
the industries, by means of
evening classes, is a phase of indus-
trial education which is now regarded
as both necessary and advantageous
in producing efficient workers. A
few of the large manufacturing
plants conduct their own classes, but
more often the instruction is given
as an adjunct of a manual training
school, a Y. M. C. A., or a technical
school.

Franklin Union, recently estab-
lished in Boston, is unique in that it
has been organized and equipped with
the sole object of instructing men em-
ployed in shops and drafting rooms.
Established from a bequest of Benj.
Franklin, the school is directly under
the charge of an incorporated board,
known as The Franklin Foundation,
which is also a department of the city
of Boston.

The instruction is thoroughly prac-
tical, to supplement the daily work
of the students, and yet is specialized
to fit the particular trades as far as is
possible in a city of varied indus-
tries. No attempt is made to teach
shop work. Saturday afternoon
classes were started with success last
year in addition to the evening classes.
Nominal fees are charged.

Courses are offered in Machine
Construction, Electricity, Steam,
Architectural Working Drawing,
Structures, Industrial Chemistry,
Sheet Metal Drafting, Mechanical
Drawing, Estimating for Builders,
Heating and Ventilating, Gas and
Gasolene Engines, Practical Science,
Shop Arithmetic, Concrete Construc-
tion, Structural Drafting and Expert
Watch Making. The laboratory equip-
ment of motors, generators, steam
and gasolene engines and accessories
is most complete, and consists of the
latest commercial types.

That the school has met a need is
shown by the registration during the
past year of something over 800 men,
whose average age was twenty-five

years, and who represented eighty
different daily vocations.

The Use of Conveyors in Lumbering

THE Jeffrey Manufacturing Com-
pany, of Columbus, Ohio, have
installed for Lord Northcliffe,
in the Anglo-Newfoundland Develop-
ment Company's Mills, Grand Falls,
Nova Scotia, a Jeffrey Wire Cable
Conveyor line, 1,830 feet between
centres. This line, which is used for
delivering pulp wood to the storage,
consists of a cable on the upper run
and reclaimed by the return cable,
which travels through a tunnel un-
derneath the piled wood, the steel
cable being ij^ inches in diameter
and the flights 4 feet apart. The
conveyor has a capacity of over 400
cords a day, traveling at the rate of
100 feet per minute, and is operated
by a 100 horsepower engine.

" Independence " as Auto Wheel

ANEW use has been found for
the Dodge wood split pulley,
according to the following,
vouched for by S. A. Emery, man-
ager of the New York branch of the
Dodge Manufacturing Company, who
supplied the requirements :

"Recently while a large automo-
bile was on a tour of the northern
part of New York State the front
wheel was broken beyond repair. A
wood pulley was suggested, and this,
with a bushing, was hastily secured.
It was fitted to the axle, and then in
place of the wheel, and under its
own power, the machine was driven,,
with its occupants, to a railroad sta-
tion some distance away, where it
was loaded on a flat car and shipped
to a point containing garage facili-
ties."

Dodge pulleys are playing an im-
portant part in the manufacture of
autos at the great plants of Buick,
Maxwell-Briscoe, Chalmers, E. M. F.
and others ; but this is the first in-
stance of where one has served as a
wheel. The fact that it filled the
bill shows how much dependence can
be put in "Independence."

MANUFACTURING NEWS

" Cost-Keeping Short Cuts "

"The Profits Made by Savings"
is the title of the opening chapter of
a valuable treatise on this subject
just received from the Burroughs
Adding Machine Company, of De-
troit, Mich. "Putting in a Cost Sys-
tem," "Day Rate or Day's Work
Plan," "Piece Work Wage Plan,"
"Premium Wage Plan," "Bonus
Wage Plan," "Profit Sharing and
Stock Distribution Plan," and "Hand-
ling the Labor Costs" are others.

The book consists of 180 pages,
and is both well printed and illus-
trated, and goes into this most impor-
tant subject very fully. It also contains
descriptions of cost systems in actual
use and an important chapter on
"Cutting the Costs of Cost Keeping,"
which is a matter fully as necessary
of being watched as that of the man-
ufacturing cost itself, as many firms
have discovered.

The Keller-Duplex is the name of
a vacuum cleaner manufactured by
the Keller Manufacturing Company,
of Philadelphia, Pa. It is a machine
of novel, yet not untried, construc-
tion, operated by an electric motor
of only y^ horse-power at a cost
of less than four cents per hour.
The Keller-Duplex Vacuum Cleaner
reaches the purchaser completely as-
sembled and mounted on its own
base, no special foundation being
necessary. It is automatic in opera-
tion, overloading being prevented
without the aid of auxiliary mechan-
ism, and requires no attention except
oiling twice a year. It is so simple
anybody can operate it with perfect
• results. Descriptive and illustrated
catalogue can be obtained on request.

Mr. William M. Chamberlin, for-
merly secretary of the Detroit Adcraft
Club, and promotion manager of
the Detroit Lubricator Company, the
Wright Manufacturing Company, and
the Austin Separator Company, has
recently become manager of the new
bureau of general promotion of the
American "Supply and Machinery

Manufacturers' Association. This as-
sociation, officered as it is by men of
prominence in the industrial world
engaged privately in many large
manufacturing enterprises, has grown
rapidly, and is doing much good
work in the field of scientific adver-
tising. Mr. Chamberlin's long ex-
perience as a sales and advertising
manager in the technical field fits
him admirably for the conduct of his
new work.

|f Addressing Machines

"The Elliott Addressing Sys-
tem" is the title of a handsome cata-
logue issued by The Elliott Com-
pany, of Boston, Mass.

Their addressing machine, now
widely known and used throughout
the world, was invented by Mr.
Sterling Elliott while he was en-
gaged as a publisher in the city of
Boston and the first machine was
shipped in July, 1900.

The book describes their machine,
its design and the uses for which it
is adapted, in addition to that of an
envelope or wrapper addresser, such
as for the addressing of bills,
statements, etc. The introduction of
an addressing machine into an office
is not only a release from the drudg-
ery of hand addressing, but proves
a time and money saver. A great
advantage of the Elliott System is
the ease with which its address cards
are cut, thus enabling the owner to
have this work done in his own of-
fice, if so desired, at slight expense
and little labor. This feature enables
one to make changes of address
promptly, to add new names at once
before they are overlooked, and to
control such changes in his address
list under his own supervision, a
point which has many self-evident
advantages.

Mr. H. C. Horton, who for many
years was connected with the Engin-
eering Magazine, has become Man-
ager of the Office Service Company,
50 Pine street, New York, N. Y.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Perfecting the High-Speed Engine

"Ultimate Ideal in Engine

Practice "

I N our last issue we gave a short

i biographical sketch of the late

Charles T. Porter, who died

August 29, at the ripe age of 84

years.

Mr. Porter lived to receive from
the engineering profession their recog-
nition of his distinguished services to
the world.

Mr. Porter's remarkable mechan-
ical mind left its impress on the
whole industrial field.

He invented the mechanism which
controls the speed of every steam en-
gine, whether of high or slow speed,
now running, and features of his de-
sign are apparent in every detail of
all operating engines down to the en-
gine bed which, under the name of
the Tangye frame, is common every-
where.

The Porter-Allen engine, pioneer
of high-speed engines, of which he
was the father, made possible electric
lighting, and is as nearly a perfect
engine as was ever built, and yet, as
its control passed out of his hands,
he did not see it through to that
state of perfection which he would
have enjoyed.

He retired to his home in Mont-
clair many years ago and the world
heard little of him afterwards. But
a mind which had been as active in
the mechanical world as his had been
could not remain dormant. And
now, at his death, we find that for
a quarter of a century he had been
qiuetly at work perfecting the high-
speed engine until he had developed
what he was pleased to style the
ultimate ideal in engine practice.

A few years ago he built a couple
of engines to demonstrate his ideas
and found that every one of his
claims was realized.

Then he incorporated the Charles
T. Porter Steam Engine Company
and assigned to it patents which he
had taken out.

The advent at this time of the
steam turbine, however, which was

exploited with great energy by large
financial interests, caused Mr. Porter
to advise the cessation of efforts to
develop his project then, and he laid
it away, and, owing to his advanced
age, he never took it up again.

Now all his engineering papers
have been looked over by his sons,
who think that possibly the time is
ripe, since the turbine has found its
special field and there is a tendency
toward a revival of the reciprocating
steam engine for its legitimate sphere
to bring to light the fruition of Mr.
Porter's efforts.

All these papers have been placed
in the hands of Mr. H. F. J. Porter,
consulting engineer of this city, who,
with Mr. George H. Barrus, of Bos-
ton, was associated with Mr. Charles
T. Porter in the development of his
ideal engine ; and it is hoped that
some way will be found of making
available the work of so many years
which Mr. Porter devoted to the
subject.

Descriptive and Illustrated Book on
New YorK Passenger Terminal and
Improvements of the Pennsyl-
vania and Long Island
Railways
Westinghouse, Church, Kerr &
Co. have issued a work of sixty-
pages and containing many fine illus-
trations descriptive of the New York
Passenger Terminal and Improve-
ments of the Pennsylvania and Long
Island Railways. It was to this firm
that the work connected with the me-
chanical and electrical engineering,
together with civil engineering de-
sign for construction at the terminal
station, was assigned. This book-
has a brief descriptive and histori-
cal article of the entire work as its
preface, and an interesting ac-
count of the engineering work de-
signed, supervised and constructed
by them in connection with this great
engineering enterprise which has now
been brought to a successful finish.
It also contains a large number of
exceedingly good half-tone illustra-
tions.

THE SCIENCE OF WATERPROOFING

By Edward M. Caffall

WATERPROOFING for build-
ings was originated by-
Robert M. Caffall, who was
the first to perceive the properties of
paraffin wax and to devise its practical
application. The peculiarity about this
substance is its remarkable inertness —

3. The waterproofing must be per-
manent— i. e., last as long as the budd-
ing itself.

4. It must not be too expensive. It
must be the cheapest process in the
end.

5. It must resist alkalis, acids, gases,

Jtl

ItL : i /"~ il

•^^L\J^Lwtj

|H1 ^LjaSH nBJ

rT --•;•=:—:

LAFAYETTE STATUE, WASHINGTON, D. C.

Recently treated with the Caffall Process, 1910.

that is to say, it has no affinity for any
other substance ; hence its name, de-
rived from the Latin words "parum
affinis" — "little affinity." Paraffin wax
is composed of carbon and hydrogen
in varying proportions, and is ex-
pressed by chemists as CnH't'«. To
waterproof a building the following
problems are to be considered, all of
which are met by this process :

1. The material must penetrate
deeply.

2. The color and appearance of the
building must not be changed.

water, sun heat, frost and vegetable
growth.

Thus it must be paraffin and that
alone, for that is the only substance
that possesses these characteristics.
Hence the term "waterproofing" ap-
plied to any other method is mislead-
ing, excepting when referring to un-
derground or basement waterproofing,
which is excluded from the weather.
This consists in applying asphaltum
and kindred substances to tarred pa-
per, felt, etc., which is finally built
upon and buried out of sight.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE
THE TERRACE BRIDGE, CENTRAL PARK, N. Y.

A PANEL OF NOVA SCOTIA SANDSTONE

Renovated and treated with the Caffall Process for Buildings in September, 1900.
Photographed ten years later, i. e., September, 1910.

/ /"^ ^

AN ADJOINING PANEL OF SIMILAR STONE THAT HAS BEEN LEFT TO THE RAVAGES OF THE WEATHER

THE SCIENCE OF WATERPROOFING

No other substance is '"water-
proof," or, more properly speaking,
"weatherproof." Varnishes, washes
and coatings are merely temporary,
and none of them are effective, even
for a short time, when applied to
damp surfaces.

years. The most notable example is,
of course, the Egyptian Obelisk in
the Central Park, New York, treated
twenty-five years ago, by which the
decay of the rock was arrested, and
which stands to-day in perfect condi-
tion and able to resist the weather
for years to come. There are other
(Continued on page 66.)

Since Mr. Porter's article on "In-
dustrial Betterment" appeared in last
month's issue, in which he described
the working of the suggestion system
in a factory, he has received a large
amount of correspondence from fac-
tory managers who had this system
installed but were not getting thor-
ough satisfaction from it.

He is now engaged in rehabilitating
these systems on a proper footing, so
that the full value of them will be-
come available both to the manage-
ment and the working organization.

THE EGYPTIAN OBELISK (CLEOPATRA'S NEEDLE), IN
CENTRAL PARK, NEW YORK,

Treated with the Caffall Process for Water-
proofing by R. M. & E. M. Caffall in November,
1885, now permanently preserved from destruc-
tion by the weather.

To illustrate the truth of these
statements it is but necessary to
direct attention to the results of the
application of Robert M. CaffalFs
process by his son and himself in past

Inspection Trip, North River Tunnels,
Pennsylvania Railway

The Pennsylvania Railroad Com-
pany has extended a special invitation
to representatives of monthly maga-
zines to become its guests on a spe-
cial train through the North River
tunnels and over the Hackensack Di-
vision of their New York improve-
ment. It is proposed to make the trip
October 5, and it will without doubt
be greatly appreciated by the invited
guests, as it will afford them an excel-
lent opportunity to become thoroughly
acquainted with the details of the
"New York Improvement and Tunnel
Extension of their Road."

The "Electrification of the Cas-
cade Tunnel of The Great Northern
Railway Company," is the title of a
handsome Bulletin issued by the
General Electric Company, Schenec-
tady, N. Y. The Bulletin contain"1
many illustrations and gives very
full information.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FINANCIAL NOTES

OF THE

INDUSTRIAL WORLD

Westing'house Air BraKe Company's
Annual Report

THE annual report of the West-
inghouse Air Brake Company
for the year ended July 31
shows earnings of more than double
those reported in the preceding year,
and marks the most prosperous year
in the company's history. The net
earnings of $4,653,102 compare with
the showing of $2,039,273 made in
1909.

After charging off $429,824 for
depreciation, etc., there remained a
surplus of $4,223,278, compared with
$1,920,557 last year, representing
30.16 per cent, earned on the $14,000,-
000 capitalization, against 13.72 per
cent, in 1909. The payment of
$2,749,268 in dividends, against
$1,374,481 last year, left a balance of
$1,474,010, which brought the total
surplus up to $6,931,760.

Fully Equipped Engineering Plant
For Sale

An engineering plant which has
been used for the production of al-
ternating electric generators, steam
turbines and other engineering appa-
ratus, and which is fully equipped,
thus enabling it to be started with
practically no delay, is on the market.

Its location affords exceptional fa-
cilities, including five railway systems,
as well as lake transportation, and a
cash bonus from the Business Men's
Association can be secured for a de-
sirable enterprise.

As its equipment is such that it can
be easily adapted to a different line of
manufacturing, it affords an unusual
opportunity for the industrial concern
seeking a location. for a branch plant,

and to the newly formed manufactur-
ing company with plant yet to be es-
tablished.

Any communication addressed to
H. C. H., care Cassier's Magazine,
will receive prompt attention.

Monarch Typewriter Company Reports
Large Increase in Business

A straw indicating the prosperity
of the manufacturing industries is
the statement of the Monarch Type-
writer Company that their business
during the first half of September
was the greatest for that period in
the history of their company, and
that business is showing essential in-
creases in all sections of the country.

They state, further, that they ex-
pect the gain in sales by their New
York and Chicago offices for the
year will be not less than 50 per cent,
over last year, and that from the
present indications the sales by the
Philadelphia and Boston offices will
show almost as handsome an increase,
while reports from other branch
offices indicate a record-breaking busi-
ness.

Manufacturer Wanted for Manufac-
ture of a Moving Picture Machine

The attention of manufactories is
called to an opportunity for the manu-
facture of a moving picture machine
on an extensive scale and also for its
sale. The machine is available al-
most anywhere, may be set up in a
minute and forms an exceedingly
convenient and essential piece of ap-
paratus for every school room, club
house and intellectual family in the
country.

For particulars address M. P. M.,
care Cassier's Magazine, New York.

MANUFACTURING NEWS

Westinghouse Electric and Manufac-
turing Company Wipes Out Ar-
rears in Its Cumulative Pre-
ferred StocK Dividends

A dividend has recently been de-
clared by the Westinghouse Electric
& Manufacturing Company that wipes
out arrears in its cumulative preferred
stock dividends since the receivership
was ordered on October 23, 1907. The
amount was 8^4 per cent, on the
$4,000,000 preferred issue, of which
2^/2 per cent, is payable on October 15,
at the same time as the regular divi-
dend for this quarter of i1/^ per cent. ;
7,y2 per cent, on January 15, and ify
per cent, on April 15.

Mr. John B. Milliken has accepted
the position of treasurer of the Yale
& Towne Manufacturing Company,
with headquarters in New York. Mr.
Milliken was formerly controller of
the Crocker- Wheeler Company.

An Investment Opportunity

The Handy Index, established two
and a half years ago, desires addi-
tional funds to enlarge its business.
It wants new men as well as new
money, and offers a chance for in-
vestment either with services or with-
out. Full particulars can be obtained
by addressing Mr. Hartwell Stafford,
1705-6 Tribune Building, New York,
N. Y.

F. William Stocker & Co., Inc.,
manufacturers of waterproofing for
concrete, stone, etc., report that they
are doing a large amount of work
for New York City in connection
with sea walls, etc.

In order to facilitate the handling
of their Western business, the Rock-
well Furnace Company, of New
York, have opened an office in the
Fisher Building, Chicago, 111., in
charge of Mr. A. L. Stevens.

The contract for the Pulp Mill of
the Union Bag & Paper Co., at Cap
de la Magdaleine, Three Rivers,
Quebec, Canada, has been awarded

to Frank B. Gilbreth, Incorporated,
No. 60 Broadway, New York.
George F. Hardy, No. 309 Broad-
way, New York, is the engineer.

Industrial Sites

The sale of a number of sites for
manufacturing concerns is reported
by the Industrial Department of the
Delaware & Hudson Company.

Extending from the coal fields of
Pennsylvania to connections with all
the great railroads of Canada and the
Eastern trunk lines, this road pro-
vides a fast freight service to the East,
West, North and South and parallels
the upper Hudson River, also the new
two thousand ton barge canal, con-
necting the river with Lake Cham-
plain, now being built by the State ; it
offers an establishment located in its
territory the benefit of cheap fuel,
electric power and low freight rates.

Its Industrial Department will aid
in the establishment of industries, de-
velop side track questions and give
complete information.

Increased Railway Earnings

Gross receipts for the fiscal year
ending June 30, 1910, exceeding those
of any other year in the history of the
company, increase in net receipts of
$1,973,022, and a surplus of $10,776,-
069, after the payment of charges,
taxes and dividends paid by the Phila-
delphia & Reading Railway company
as compared with $9,041,915 for the
previous year. Such is the showing
given in the thirteenth annual report
of the Reading Company for the year
ending June 30, 1910.

Contracts Awarded

Among recent oil furnace contracts
taken by Walter Macleod & Co., of
Cincinnati, are a large plate heating
furnace for the J. Baum Safe Com-
pany, Cincinnati ; complete furnace
equipment for the Southern Motor
Works, Nashville, Tenn., and a com-
plete furnace equipment for the W.
H. Clore Manufacturing Company,
Washington, Ind. .

THE LATEST CATALOGUES

Belts and Their Proper Care

Users of belts, the cost of which
is a very considerable item of ex-
pense in shop maintenance, will find
of value the pamphlet "The Proper
Care of Belts," issued by the Joseph
Dixon Crucible Company, of Jersey
City, N. J., which goes most thor-
oughly into the matter of belt dress-
ings, and contains a chapter entitled
"Hints, Kinks, Tables," which is
most instructive.

Patents, Trade-MarHs and Copyrights

A little work issued by Victor J.
Evans & Co., of Washington, D. C,
contains an interesting article on the
advantages of Registering Under
the New Trade-Mark Law.

There are also articles treating of
Copyright Law, Foreign Copyrights
and Trade-Mark Patent Laws and
Requirements, a table of charges for
Trade-Mark Applications in Foreign
Countries, as well as much informa-
tion which will be found useful to
those desirous of taking out a patent
in the United States or in foreign
countries. Copies can be obtained by
addressing them.

Air Compressors

The National Brake & Elec-
tric Company, of Milwaukee, Wis.,
have in their Publication No. 391,
entitled "Motor and Belt-Driven Air
Compressors," presented in most at-
tractive form a large amount of in-
formation of value concerning com-
pressed air and its adaptability as an
actuating medium. It describes very
fully their different types of Air
Compressors and Air Storage Reser-
voirs, including several types of
Portable Air Compressor Outfits,

their Combined Air Compressor and
Water Pump Units.

Recording Instruments

A LARGE AND HANDSOME CATA-
LOGUE on Recording Instruments is
received from The Bristol Company,
of Waterbury, Conn., which in all
particulars maintains the high stan-
dard of all the publications they is-
sue, a standard they have always
kept of the highest order in the
many kinds of recording instruments
for which they are noted.

Multiple Drills, Die SinKers, Etc.

Catalogues covering fully Milling
Machines, Multiple Drills, Die
Sinkers, Etc., come from the Pratt
& Whitney Company, of Hartford,
Conn. They are issued in the best
style of the modern printing art, and
contain many large half-tone illus-
trations with descriptive text.

Generator and Feeder Panels

A new Bulletin on "Isolated Plant
— Direct Current Combination Gen-
erator and Feeder Panels" is just is-
sued by the General Electric Com-
pany, Schenectady, N. Y., supersed-
ing previous Bulletins.

Superheaters and Feed-Water Heaters

"Smoke Box Superheaters and
Feed- Water Heaters'" is the title of
a catalogue received from the Bald-
win Locomotive Works of Philadel-
phia, which contains an article on the
former by Mr. John W. Converse,
and one entitled "The Advantages of
the Use of Moderately Superheated
Steam in Locomotive Practice," by
Lawford H. Fry. A copy can be
obtained by addressing the company.

MANUFACTURING NEWS

Leather Splitting Machines

The American Tool & Machine
Company, Boston, Mass., presents a
well-designed and executed catalogue
giving typical illustrations of their
Belt-knife Leather Splitting Ma-
chines, as well as their duplicate
parts. The book contains a number
of illustrations of a high order.

Bearing's and Friction Clutches

Among other catalogues issued
by the Hill Clutch Company, of
Cleveland, Ohio, are ones on Bear-
ings, Friction Clutches and Trans-
mission Machinery. This company
is noted both for the attractiveness
and value of its publications.

Steam Hammers and Milling Machines

The Niles-Bement-Pond Com-
pany issue a valuable catalogue of
52 pages, 9 x 12, with many illus-
trations of the Bement Hammer they
manufacture, and a similar one treat-
ing of Heavy Milling Machines.
These catalogues are well worth
owning and can be obtained on re-
quest.

Electric Heat in Hat Manufacture

A pamphlet, entitled "Electric Heat
in the Manufacture of Hats," just
issued by the Westinghouse Electric
and Manufacturing Company, is an-
other indication of the almost un-
ending uses electricity is being put
to. The pamphlet is very fully illus-
trated and of much interest.

Autogenous Welding Equipments

Autogenous Welding Equipments
Compared, a Discussion of the Rela-
tive Merits of the High and Low
Pressure Systems, is the title of a
leaflet just issued by the Davis-Bour-
nonville Company of New York. It
is interesting reading, especially that
portion of it treating of the welding
of Edison storage battery jars me-
chanically. Copies can be obtained
from them on request.

Hawthorn Electric Motors

A booklet giving information con-
cerning the Hawthorn electric motor,
and showing the many uses it can be
put to, is issued by the Western Elec-
tric Company, of New York, N. Y.
A copy can be obtained by writing
them.

Brush Balanced Engine and Direct-
Connected Lighting Set

Complete illustrated catalogue is-
sued by the Chas. A. Strelinger Com-
pany, Detroit, Mich., describing the
Brush lighting set, which is portable
and compact, and their many other
products. A sketch of the work of
.Alanson P. Brush is also given.

Dodge Handy Calculator

The Dodge Manufacturing Com-
pany, Station H-H, Mishawaka, Ind.,
have issued a useful Calculator for
pulleys, belts and friction clutches. It
is bound in real leather, and will be
sent by them on receipt of 25 cents.

Cold-Drawn Steel Tubes

The National Tube Company,
of Pittsburg, Pa., are issuing a set of
most artistic desk blotters, the face of
which is devoted to the history of
seamless steel tubing, etc. They are
interesting and useful. Copies can
be obtained on request.

Waterproofing'

"Some Facts in Regard to Water-
proofing" is the title of a valuable
pamphlet issued by the Hydro-Bar
Waterproofing Company. It is inter-
esting reading, and a copy can be ob-
tained from F. William Stocker &
Co., Inc., 34 West Thirty-third street,
New York.

Automobile Trip Records

The B. F. Goodrich Company, of
Akron, Ohio, have just issued a
second edition of "A Memory of
Motor Yesterdays" for use in keep-
ing record of automobile trips. A
copy will be sent by them on re-
quest.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

The Utilization of Natural Resources

WE have heard much talk of
late about the conservation
of natural resources, and
the subject has entered into politics,
business and engineering, sometimes
with but scant indication of a reason-
able conception of the real meaning
of the term. Some writers appear
to understand conservation in the
same sense as the miser regards the
care of his material wealth, and con-
sider it as equivalent to the jealous
hoarding of natural wealth, wealth
which can be of value only when
it is being used. Others, with a
more rational conception of the idea,
regard conservation as practically
synonymous with rational utilization,
with the reduction of waste to a
minimum, and the development of
serviceable value to a maximum, and
the intelligent engineer has always
regarded the wise use of the re-
sources of Nature in this light.

Assuming, then, that conservation
is best attained by the reduction of
waste and by the creation of value,
it may be worth while to consider
wherein the work of . the engineer
may best be directed to attain these
ends. Martens has divided the
materials of engineering into two
classes, materials of construction and
materials of consumption, the latter
class including those substances
which, in being used, are practically
consumed and transformed so as to
be incapable of further use, such as
coal and other fuels.

In considering the methods of con-
serving such materials, it is well to
examine wherein the possible wastes
now exist, this indicating to the en-
gineer the lines along which his ef-
forts may best be directed.

Such an investigation shows that
before a material can be utilized at
all it must, in nearly every case, be
transported from its natural situa-
tion to some other point, so that a
value is given to it without any ma-
terial change other than that of loca-
tion. This means that one of the
great opportunities for conservation
lies in economy of transport, or

rather in the losses which accompany
transport. Poor Richard said that
"three removes are as bad as a fire,"
and although he was referring di-
rectly to household belongings, the
same principle holds good with re-
spect to other materials, and ordinary
methods of transport are always ac-
companied with losses, greater or
less, according to the method used.

Leaving aside the possible im-
provements in long-distance trans-
port of material, we find a great op-
portunity for economy, not only in
time and cost, but also in waste, in
the use of the latest and best appli-
ances for handling. The coal which
is lifted from car or barge into ele-
vated bins by modern machinery suf-
fers far less loss and waste than if
shoveled by main strength from one
point to another in succession. When,
again, the coal descends through prop-
erly designed chutes to the mechanical
stoker by which it is fed to the fur-
nace the losses are again reduced
to a minimum. The old-time insti-
tution of the "long" ton was simply
an allowance for the assumed inevit-
able losses in handling, so that the
"hundred-weight" of 112 pounds
simply meant an addition of 12 per
cent, for wastage. If 12 per cent, of
the coal bill of the world could be
saved, as most of it can, simply by
the avoidance of handling losses, far
more will have been done toward
true conservation than all the efforts
to keep the coal in the ground and
prevent its use until future genera-
tions appear.

Other methods of aiding in the
good work of conservation appear in
the application of effective methods
of combustion, of smoke prevention
and of maintenance of high efficiency
in boilers and engines, but these be-
long to another field. It is evident,
however, that conservation, from the
viewpoint of the engineer, means re-
reduction of wastes ; it means the di-
rection of the great sources of power
in Nature to the use and convenience
of man," and in these words it was
broadly set forth by Tredgold nearly
one hundred years ago.

Paying Investment

Hunt "Industrial" Railway

No. 0994

will reduce the pay
roll more than any
other system.

One company installed this
system and their pay roll was re-
duced $24 per day and in addition
the capacity was increased.

Simple to install, as an ordinary

Machine Shop and Shipping Department, _i 1 • . j

ica Drop Forge and Tool Co , Utica, N. Y. Workman Can lay it down.

lVilAKES every corner of the works or factory accessible. The
gauge is 21 J inches and it can be laid within the standard 4 ft. 8| in.
track, without cutting or notching the rails. Made up in four styles :

Riveted up track with malleable iron cross ties.
Riveted up steel track.
Knock-down track.
Cast Plate track.

Everything for use with this
system is kept in stock for
immediate delivery.^: : : :

If the necessary data is sent, we will
prepare a lay-out without charge and
with the right cars will show where
this saving can be effected.

Hoisting and Conveying Machinery, Cable
Railways, Automatic Rail ways, Steam Shovels

No. 008. — Standard Cars. We Design Cars to Meet
Any Special Requirements.

C. W. HUNT COMPANY

Established 1872

West New Brighton, New York

New York City, 45 Broadway Richmond, Va., Stale Bank Building Atlanta, Ga., 607 Rhodes Building

Chicago, 1616 Fisher Building San Francisco, 865 Monadnock Building

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Lightening the Burden

IN viewing many of the works of
antiquity the fact that strikes
the traveler most forcibly is the
vast amount of physical strength that
was expended to accomplish the won-
derful results attained. In the days
when mechanical aids for such pur-
poses were not only few, but of a
most primitive nature, one can
imagine the great number of both
men and animals required by the
ancients to lift into place the stones
of the Pyramids and of the Colis-
seum.

Yet even in these modern days,
when so much has been done to
lighten the burden for both man and
beast, there are many tasks per-
formed by the use of much unneces-
sary physical effort and even brute
strength, for no better reason "than
that they have always been clone that
way," when by the application of
devices well known and largely used
in other lines of work they could be
accomplished with far less effort,
time and expense.

A good illustration is the amount
of human effort and muscle still mis-
used for the direct lifting of heavy
weights in many every-day occupa-
tions. There is no class of work
carried on to-day where the occasion
does not demand the safe, quick and
economical transportation of heavy
objects, while often the method pur-
sued in accomplishing such work is
not very far advanced over that of
the ancients.

For example, the farmer equipped
with ordinary pulley block and
tackle, assisted by his hired men and
horses, struggling and straining to
lift a heavy stone on his stone boat
and to place it in his wall.

This was well enough in the "good
old days," when labour was cheap and
competition did not mean that time
and effort wasted were money and
opportunity lost.

The managers of modern machine
shops and manufactories where every
effort is made to perform work along
the line of least resistance are well
aware of the value, for instance, of

such a device as the Triplex Block,
and its extensive use has either
caused the old-time labouring gang
to disappear or to be greatly re-
duced in numbers. Such, however,
does not hold true to the extent it
should in many other lines of work
where its introduction would work
changes of the greatest value, not
only in the saving of time and
money, but in the health and happi-
ness of mankind.

By the use of such a device as
the Triplex Block in the man}' ways
it could and should be employed,
ways that are in fact universal, loads
that now call for many men could
be safely and economically raised by
one, and not only lifted but auto-
matically held at any point, for any
time desired, as well as moved hori-
zontally in any direction, and if
necessary lifted and lowered to just
the right height by the same man
without other human aid.

In fact this block multiplies the
strength of one man to such a degree
he is the master of any lifting prob-
lem, with a return of fully 80 per
cent, of useful work for the labour
he expends.

When it is realized that with the
ordinary hoist only about one-half
of the effort expended by the operator
is returned in actual results, the in-
troduction of such a device as the
Triplex Block into the large number
of every-day uses for which it is so
well adapted increases the efficiency
of the same man 80 per cent., the
full value of its introduction is
easily appreciated, and it is safe to
predict that in a short time even its
present wide use will be largely ex-
tended.

It is not alone through the efforts
and inventions of the engineer that
life is made more pleasant and re-
sults are now accomplished at a much
reduced expenditure of money, time
and physical strength, but it is the
further extension and use of the
practical and efficient creations of
his brain that his labor is year by
year doing more and more to lighten
the burden for all mankind.

THE SA TURD A Y EVENING POST September 1 7, 1910

Aerial Transportation

The Triplex Chain Block

The best chain hoisting machine, absolutely safe. Always holds the
load automatically at any point. One man alone can lift the full load

THE lifting of loads is a universal need — a
vital factor in every man's business. The
Triplex Block is the simplest, safest, most
efficient and most economical load-lifter in the world.
It lifts loads under all conditions in all places —
from a palace to a sawmill — a garage to a warship.
When one man pulls on the hand chain of the
Triplex Block, he can lift any load from 200 lbs. to
twenty tons; two men can lift forty tons.

The load is always automatically held at any point
during the lift. You can go away and let it hang
ten seconds or a year. It will not come down until
you are ready. Then you lower it by pulling lightly
on the reverse side of the hand chain.

The Triplex Block has the strongest, simplest,
smoothest-running, wear-resisting system of gears
ever devised to multiply lifting power.

It so multiplies the strength of one man as to make him
master of every lifting problem.

Many loads must also be transported — moved
horizontally. The Triplex Block not only lifts its
load easily and holds it suspended safely, but when
hung from a trolley running on an overhead track,
the load may be moved easily wherever the overhead
track goes.

One man can push the load as easily as he lifts it.
In foundries, machine shops, .factories, sawmills,
mines, quarries, warehouses — in power-houses and
boiler-rooms — on railways, ships and docks — thousands
of Triplex Blocks are daily lifting and transporting thou-
sands of tons, at a saving in labor which frequently repays
the whole cost of installation in six months. Everyone
who has lifting and transporting to do should write for
the book about Triplex Blocks. A postcard brings it.

Three hundred dealers in the United Statei carry Triplex Block, in

clock. Wherever you nre and whatever your problem— you may have a

Triplex Block to try by juit a I king any one of them or by writing to ui.

14 Sizes : One half a ton to forty ton*. ,

The Yale & Towne Mfg. Co.

Makers of Vale Products /v/A I C-S 9 Murray St.. New Vcrk

The Triplex Block would prove itself a real ne-
cessity in thousands of places where it is not even
known today.

This is why we spent $3,000 to print the above
full-page advertisement in the Saturday Evening Post
of September 17th.

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE,
- ,- 59

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Force and Motion

IN the discussion of the perform-
ance of work by mechanical
power the engineer finds himself
facing the question of accomplishing
two things: one, the production of
sufficient force to overcome the re-
sistance opposed to him ; the other,
the imparting to this force of the
motion necessary to keep up a con-
tinuous action. A force of ioo
pounds can do no work until it is
given a velocity, until it is made to
travel a given number of feet per
second, until it is converted into
foot-pounds.

A natural consequence of these
facts is that it matters but little,
at least theoretically, which of the
two elements is the larger ; we may
have a few pounds moving very
rapidly, or a larger force mov-
ing proportionally slower, and the
amount of power developed will be
the same.:. The whole history of en-
gineering,, has shown the develop-
ment from the heavy, slow-moving
force to the lighter, high-speed com-
bination, a natural consequence of
the improvement in constructive pos-
sibilities.

Thus, in the earlier days of mill
construction it was thought possible
to transmit power only by heavy,
slow-moving shafting and gearing,
and the use of belting and pulleys was
considered trifling, and adapted only
to yery light machinery. The moder-
ate fricfional hold of the belt upon the
pulley and the correspondingly lower
strength of the belt, as compared
with the ponderous cog-wheels, led
to v such conclusions, until it was
realized that the greatly increased
speed of the belt enables ample power
to be transmitted ; it was the same
combination of force and motion, and
if the force was smaller the motion
was faster, and the power trans-
mitted was as great in the one case
as in the other. When, still later,
it was proposed to use rope driving
for many purposes, the same mis-
conception stood in the way, and the
old-time machinist, who laughed at
the idea of attempting to drive his
lathe with a "piece of string," opened

his eyes when he saw that the swift-
running rope could pull him through
a cut which had caused the old belt
to leave the pulley many a time. To-
day these things are better under-
stood, and with the development of
the science of the transmission en-
gineer it has been found possible to
meet almost every demand, and to
deliver power to any point where it
is needed with certainty and effi-
ciency. The result is a rapidly ex-
tending use of power for many pur-
poses for which it was formerly con-
sidered inapplicable. In every part
of the shop, power is readily attain-
able, whether delivered by belt, rope
or electric wire. Men use their
brains to direct their hands in the
guidance of power-driven tools for
nearly every operation, with a re-
sulting increase in capacity and effi-
ciency beyond estimate. What the
development of modern railway
transport has been to the expansion
of commerce, the increase in power-
transmission facilities has done in the
manufacturing industries. The de-
velopment of mechanical force would
avail nothing if with it there had not
come a similar development of appli-
ances for providing the motion neces-
sary to complete the production and
delivery of power.

It is never safe to predict the limi-
tations of any department of in-
dustry, but one has only to look back
at what has been accomplished in the
comparatively few years since really
effective power transmission has been
accomplished to realize the possi-
bilities in the immediate future.
There is no reason why human labor
should be called on for the perform-
ance of any severe effort, since there
may always be mechanical power
available and convenient. The idea
that there is a certain disfnity essen-
tial inherent in the exertion of mus-
cular effort was once considered evi-
dent, although with it went the be-
lief that the burden of labour was
instituted as a punishment. If the
latter view be accepted, man is
working out his deliverance through
the efforts of the engineer of power
and transmission.

The Dodge Line Means Standardization

N the best equipped, most efficient plants all over
the country, where the value of standard equipment
is appreciated —

<J There you will find The Dodge Line of Power
Transmission Machinery installed throughout.
1§ Please note the advantages these plants have secured.
<J The Dodge Line represents The Dodge Idea— Standard-
ized excellence and interchangeability and the split feature in
power transmission machinery.

T-. i o i. -n ■ • /-i i ' Tnrw ^"~ Dodge Adj. True Ball and

Dodge Split Friction Clutch ^Kr^1^^ Socket Hanger, with four types

with Iron Pulley. Mechanism ^HEk \ of self-oiling bearings.

[and Pulley are separate and
interchangeable

Dodge "Independence" Wood

Split Pulley. For twenty-
eight years the standard, eco-
nomical pulley for shop work.

<J The adoption of one complete line of such transmission

appliances means quick installation, low cost of maintenance

and attendance, and economy of operation.

*R That is why The Dodge Line would be profitable as your

shop standard.

•I Let us advise with you in regard to transmitting power

at your plant. Your name on the coupon brings our new S

general catalog No. CC-10, "Power Transmission /

Engineering," just out, and other interesting / DOdge

information. / MFG co

S Station J-ll,
W> 1 t ^M r a • ' /* _ > Mishawako, Ind.

Dodge Manufacturing Co. / Pleasesendyour

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Radialaxe Possibilities

HE Radialaxe principle would
seem to be generally and
widely applicable to operations
in stone excavation, the working in
fixed planes being dictated not only
by the natural cleavage of the rock,
•but also by the planes which usually
are required by the shapes of the fin-
ished blocks for building, monu-
mental or other uses. As generally
happens in the development of inven-
tions, what is most obvious in the re-
trospect is delayed in its first inception
until the less serviceable devices, each
an improvement upon its predecessor,
have been successively worked out and
their deficiencies, as well as their pos-
sibilities, revealed. The Radialaxe is
comparatively a newcomer; we may
easily believe that all the possibilities
tor its employment and the advan-
tages of it have not yet all been de-
veloped, and we may expect its more
extensive employment in the future.

The Radialaxe comes along natu-
rally as the successor and working
companion of the stone channeler.
The latter may be said to work nor-
mally with vertical bits or cutters, the
cut being in a vertical plane, permit-
ting liberal angular departures from
the vertical in either direction of work-
ing, while the normal working of the
Radialaxe would, perhaps, be difficult
to define.

The normal working direction for
the bit of the Radialaxe might, per-
haps, be said to be horizontal rather
than vertical; but from this normal
or central direction it would change
constantly when working in a vertical
plane ; but it would work as well in
a horizontal plane, and when so
working the lateral direction of the
cutter would be as constantly chang-
ing. From either the vertical or the
horizontal plane of working the Ra-
dialaxe operates with equal facility at
any required angular pitch in either
direction.

It not only carries cutters whose
function is the same as that of the

stone channeler, but it also works as
a regular rock drill, putting in holes
in any direction and to any required
depth for blasting. It is quickly and
easily adjusted tor working in any
direction and for either channeling or
drilling, and the parts of the appa-
ratus are easily separated into con-
venient weights for handling.

The special characteristics of the
Radialaxe peculiarity qualify it for the
variety of operations involved in the
work of the coal mine, although the
principal operation is a species of
rough channeling in directions paral-
leling the strata, which seldom vary
far from the horizontal. This hori-
zontal working will consist of under-
cutting the seam so that the coal can
be easily broken down, the most per-
sistent operation of coal getting, or
of cutting out of bands of clay,
which often occur in the middle of a
seam and seriously impair the purity
of the coal if not removed. Espe-
cially in this latter case some preci-
sion of location is required, with the
greatest facility of movement, so that
time will not be wasted; and in this
the Radialaxe would seem to have it
practically all to itself.

For the vertical channeling, if we
may so call it, which occurs in coal
getting, for entry driving, for shear-
ing on either side in the rooms, or
for center cutting, so that light shots
will bring down the coal in large
lumps and with the least shattering
of the walls, the Radialaxe again ap-
proaches the ideal.

Each coal mine is different in some
respects from every other, and the
work of getting out the coal as
cheaply and in as good condition as
possible will vary in essential particu-
lars. The most desirable characteris-
tic of a machine for which a market
may be expected must be adaptability,
a readiness to work in all positions, in
widely varying conditions, and to turn
itself from one style of cutting to the
other, as required, and for this the
Radialaxe is eminently adapted.

INGERSOLL-RAND CO.

NEW YORK CHICAGO

The "Radialaxe

4812

Here is a standard Ingersoll-
Rand product, designed
and built by rock drill
and coal mining experts
for six specific classes of
coal mining work, as
follows :

Undercutting in a pitching
seam.

Shearing in any seam and
particularly in entries.

Mining near the middle of
the seam.

Cutting-out bands in the
coal seam.

Mining under or above bands of slate or clay.

Driving entries or headings.

In anyone of these, the " Radialaxe" has no successful competition and
has been proved to be a great coal mining economy.

It is really a long-stroke rock drill, with a special radial mounting, mak-
ing a long, deep, narrow cut in the coal face, at any angle desired.

It can also be used as a rock drill in brushing entries, driving headings,
development and similar work.

A new pamphlet, No. 5003, is in preparation. Shall we enter your name
to receive a copy?

Products :
AIR COMPRESSORS
ROCK DRILLS
HAMMER DRILLS
ELECTRIC-AIR DRILLS
CORE DRILLS
COAL CUTTERS
CHANNELERS
PNEUMATIC TOOLS
PNEUMATIC HOISTS
PNEUMATIC PUMPS

DOMESTIC

OFFICES:

Birmingham

El Paso

Boston

Philadelphia

Butte

Pittsburg

Chicago

St. Louis

Cleveland

Salt Lake

Denver

San Francisco

Duluth

Seattle

FOREIGN^OFFICESi
Budapest Mexico

Dusseldorf Montreal

Johannesburg Paris

Kobe Valparaiso

Melbourne Yokohama

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CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Advantages of Concrete Construction

NEARLY every type of building-
construction has its special
advantages ; properties which
have been developed in the course
of long periods of use, or else quali-
ties inherent in the material itself.
The combination of cement, sand and
broken stone, called concrete, and
really being artificial stone, manufac-
tured in place, and moulded to suit
the location as a building material
has its properties and advantages,
some of them peculiarly its own and
some acquired by the application of
technical ingenuity to meet the re-
quirements of the case.

It is no small advantage, in the
first place, to be able to manufacture
stone of just the dimensions re-
quired without being obliged to have
recourse to the slow, difficult and
expensive expedient of cutting it to
suit. The possibilities of wooden
forms, to be filled with the semi-
liquid mass, setting and hardening
into permanent condition and rapidly
becoming as durable as natural stone
itself, form by no means the least
of the advantages of concrete.
Given the massive walls and solid
partitions, and there comes with them
an idea of permanence wholly lack-
ing with a timber house, however at-
tistic. Destruction by fire is a prac-
tical impossibility ; the material has
been through the fire already and is
immune. The annual painting de-
manded by a well-kept wooden
house, with its accompanying annoy-
ances and expenses, is unknown with
the concrete building, which needs no
more attention in this respect than
one built of stone. The general ad-
vantages of concrete construction
have now become so well established
that architects have its opportunities
and facilities well in hand, and in-
stead of the earlier and cruder de-
signs have produced many most ef-
fective buildings, adapting the plan
to the material and combining ef-
fective appearance with the capabili-
ties of the substance itself.

An essential advantage of con-

crete construction, and one which,
while not inherent in the material,
has been very successfully developed
to meet an important demand is its
waterproofing. Concrete in itself is
not entirely impervious to water, and
although it can be so made as to
resist water pressure most effectively,
it cannot be considered damp-proof
unless made so by special treatment.
The demand for absolute waterproof-
ing of concrete, however, has led to
the development of processes which
attain this end completely, and thus
there is added to the natural advan-
tages of concrete the artificial advan-
tage, so to speak, the result of the
art of the engineer and technologist,
of resistance to damp and to the
penetration of moisture.

Under such conditions it is evident
that concrete, either plain or rein-
forced, is bound to become the domi-
nant building material, and that it
will gradually supersede timber, stone
or brick, for many purposes. With
the increasing scarcity of lumber, and
its consequent increase in price, the
question of cost will continue to be
in favor of concrete, while the ab-
scence of maintenance expense must
be added to the balance on the side
of the concrete building.

Probably the greatest advantage
of concrete, however, and one to
which allusion has already been
made, is the freedom from fire risk.
The fire losses in the United States
have been estimated as reaching
about $2.50 per year for every man,
woman and child in the country, a
tax which, if imposed by legislation,
would meet with such opposition as
to insure its prompt repeal. It is
within the power of the citizen to
remove this burden without po-
litical or other agitation, simply by
insisting upon the use of non-com-
bustible material for all purposes,
and when it is realized that witb
this attainment of freedom from fire
risk there are acquired the other ad-
vantages already enumerated there
should be no question as to the re-
sult.

CONCRETE

and other surfaces made

WATERPROOF

lApAdAs

A COMPOUND of silicate
base, mixed with the mixing
water, thereby becoming
part of the concrete.

Trade Mark
Registered

I APADAS is
ideal for the
lining of heavy
concrete struc-
tures a nd positive-
ly prevents the en-
trance of water.

STORAGE TANKS

For Ice Manufacture. Waterproof Lining one inch thick,
of cement mixed with Lapadas applied after forms were
pulled to the interior walls.

Specify a Waterproofing
that appeals to reason.

DOES it seem reasonable that, with ordinary labor, you can
mix a dry powder evenly with cement, sand and gravel ?

UNLESS it is mixed evenly, so that it reaches every part of
of the concrete, the waterproof is useless.

WATER reaches every molecule. If it does not there is
no bond at all.

LAPADAS

is dissolved in water and goes even where
water does. Does that sound reasonable ?

"FACTS ON
WATERPROOFING"

FREE ON REQUEST

F. WM. STOCKER & CO. inc.

34 West 33rd St., New York, N. Y.

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

The Science of Waterproofing

(Continued from page 51.)

examples not so well known which
are even more remarkable. In 1868
a church window and gable end at
Thedden Grange, Shalden, Hamp-
shire, England, were treated, because
of bad leaks in storms. This gable
end, examined recently, presents a
fresh, clean, sound appearance, while
the rest of the stone is covered with
lichen and rotting away. A hop-kiln
at Alton Hants, England, treated the
same year to keep dampness out of
the kiln-dried hops, is still dry ; more-
over, water poured on the treated
surface rolled off without being ab-
sorbed. Here are tests of forty-tzvo
vears and no change apparent.
Equally striking are some examples
of more recent work. The pillars of
St. Bartholomew's Church, Forty-
fourth street and Madison avenue,
were procured from Italy some seven
or eight years agro. The violet and
green tones of this delicate marble
give an effect to the buildine" not to
be matched in the city. But the
weather so quickly attacked the stone
that pieces began to flake off and the
entire surfaces of the pillars became
roughened and deeplv pitted by de-
cay. Edward M. Caffall undertook
the renovation of the columns and
their preservation bv waterproofing.
The result is astounding to those ac-
ouainted with the former conditions.
By this means the architect has been
justified in his selection of this stone
for his color scheme, because it is
now enduring: as well as beautiful.
It is apparent that science and skill
are requisite in the treatment of
buildings when permanence of result
is desired, and this is true of even
new erections. New problems are
presented, however, when the stone
or brickwork has been injured by
weather exposure, and these must be
met and corrected before water-
proofing can be proceeded with.
Hence the absurdity of selling- so-
called waterproofing- compounds in
bulk to be applied bv unskilled la-
bour, ignorant of the fundamental

principles of climatic attack. Disap-
poinment is inevitable, and the ex-
pense might better be spared. As a
matter of fact, much greater damage
ensues in the majority of cases.

It has been estimated that the loss
to buildings by weather and smoke
damage in the United States amounts
to no less than $500,000,000 annually.
The loss caused by damage to marble
monuments, many sculptured by emi-
nent artists, can never be estimated.
Statues of Washington and other
great men, left unprotected, have
been irretrievably ruined. Monu-
ments are interesting to the pub-
lic when original. Reproductions
never satisfy. The first question
asked by the average visitor to a
cemetery is almost invariably : 'Which
is the oldest stone?" No matter how
small or quaintly lettered., the chief
interest centers around that early
memento. Let the visitor to Trinity
Churchyard, New York City, com-
pare the tombstone of Charlotte Tem-
ple with that of William Bradford,
printer. The Temple stone is the orig-
inal and arouses interest, while the
Bradford stone replaces an original,
and a feeling of regret and disap-
pointment is inevitable. The worst
example of this feature is to be seen
in Windsor Castle, England. The
original Curfew Tower, erected by
William the Conqueror, was recently
stripped of its outer stonework and
a coating of new stone built all over.
Not a particle of the original walls
can now be seen. The visitor is
looking, apparently, at a brand-new
building. The effect is deplorable.
Imagine the Obelisk in Central Park
dressed clown and new hieroglyphics
cut or thin slabs of stone built around
it ! The marble statue of Washing-
ton that stood in front of Inde-
pendence Hall, Philadelphia, was
lately taken away because of the
fearful damage wrought by the ele-
ments. A bronze reproduction of
modern manufacture has taken its
place. Many years ago the authori-
ties were warned of its condition and
urged to preserve it, but the warning
was unheeded till too late.

^Xauufactxitiixg fpws

The Motor and the Aeroplane

IT was the motor and the man that
did it! On April 27 and 28,
1910, there occurred what must
ever be considered as an epoch-mak-
ing event in the hstory of applie'd
science ; Louis Paulhan, in a Farman
aeroplane propelled by a Gnome mo-
tor, flew through the air from Lon-
don to Manchester, a distance of 186
miles. It is now well known that the
motor is the thing which makes for
success in the conquest of the air.
The Wright glider did very well
without a motor ; but had not the
motor been available, its range would
have been forever limited to a few
hundred feet. The work of Daimler,
in reducing the weight and increasing
the power of the gasoline motor,
made the automobile a possibility, and
.the development of the automobile
motor provided the light - weight,
high-power machine which was to
propel the planes of the flying ma-
chine through the air.

The water-cooled motor is too
heavy, with its burden of cylinder
jackets, radiator and cooling water;
but these defects have been over-
come, and the Gnome motor, with its
seven revolving cylinders, whose thin,
projecting ribs whirl through the air
and permit the rapid and effective
transfer of heat from the intense
combustion within to the swiftly
passing air currents without, needs
no cooling water and no radiator, and

affords the latest example of concen-
tration of power generation by the
combustion of liquid fuel.

The machine which made the flight
from the metropolis to the manufac-
turing centre is clearly visible in the
illustration, which shows a 50 horse-
power Gnome motor, weighing only
167 pounds, or 3.34 pounds per
horse-power, identical with the ma-
chine which carried Paulhan from
London to Manchester in twelve
hours, including the single stop for
fuel, and which enabled him to make
the last twenty-four miles of the
flight in twenty-four minutes.

The sound principle for the con-
struction of a light-weight motor,
that it should be light by its own de-
sign rather than light in its parts, has
been well observed in the Gnome
motor. None of its parts is made of
cast metal, and no aluminum is em-
ployed in its construction.

The extreme lightness secured has
been obtained by the correct distribu-
tion of the materials, thus securing
the maximum degree of efficiency in
resistance. Most of the parts are
made of forged nickel-steel, and
quality is held above all things. Lm-
like other motors in which there is
a revolving crankshaft, the crank re-
mains stationary, and the seven cyl-
inders and the crank chamber revolve,
thus bringing the cooling extended
surface of the ribs continually in con-
tact with the air, besides forming

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

—

THE GNOME MOTOR ON THE PAULHAN AEROPLANE

a powerful fly-wheel, maintaining
steady motion, and securing perfect
balance. Through the hollow axle
comes the combustible of air and va-
porized fuel, as well as the oil for
lubrication, and at the extremity of
this shaft is the carburetor, which
converts the gasoline into gaseous
fuel for combustion.

This set of cylinders revolves at a
speed of 200 to 1,300 revolutions per
minute, and a horse-power-hour re-
quires about 300 grammes, or 10.58
ounces avoirdupois, of petrol. Tak-
ing the calorific value of this fuel at
20,000 British thermal units per
pound, we have, for 10.58 ounces, or
0.661 pound, a consumption of 13,-
220 British thermal units per horse-
power, corresponding to an efficiency
of nearly 20 per cent.

It is well understood that economy
of fuel is as important as reduction
in weight of the motor for an aero-
plane, since with the increasing
lengths of flights the weight of fuel
to be carried becomes more of a bur-
den than the motor itself. Thus, a

50 horse-power motor, consuming
more than 30 pounds of fuel per
hour, would require about its own
weight in petrol in a flight of three
hours, and thus anything which di-
minishes the fuel consumption in-
creases the flying radius in propor-
tion.

The question of aerial navigation
has been taken out of the experi-
mental and sporting stage and made
an engineering and commercial pro-
position. It is a matter for the engi-
neer, and to him the aviator must
look for the improved motor for de-
tails of construction and for mate-
rials of greater strength and less
weight. The fact remains uncon-
tested ; a man, in a mechanically-
propelled machine, has occupied the
third dimension, and above the sur-
face of the earth has outdistanced the
swiftest railway train.

Four-score years ago the Rocket
made its marvelous run of 35 miles
an hour on the beginnings of the
Liverpool & Manchester Railway, and
George Stephenson "at last deliv-

MANUFACTURING NEWS

ered himself." It took but a few
years from that demonstration to the
full fruition of the steam railway, an
engineering achievement which has
transformed the surface of the earth.
Now the engineer has gone above
the surface, and to that same city of
Manchester has gone the demonstra-
tion of the assured navigation of the
air over nearly two hundred miles.
How soon it will be followed by the
commercial realization remains to be
seen, but we have before us the pre-
cedent of the railway; and things
move to-day with an accelerated
progress.

of the machine is 8
8 inches thick, and it
inch to \y2
the depth of

An Automatic Hollow Chisel Mortiser

This new automatic, horizontal,
hollow chisel mortiser is designed for
a great variety of light and medium
grade of work in carriage and wagon
factories and is presented to the trade
with confidence and assurance of an
up-to-date tool.

The capacity
inches wide by
will mortise from
inches square, and
7 inches.

The manufacturers claim special
merit for this machine because of its
convenient adjustments.

The reader will note from the illus-
tration that all the adjustments are
within easy reach of the operator.

In the manufacturer's new illustra-
ted circular special attention is called
to the following features :

Column is a single-cored casting,
very heavy and with broad, continu-
ous floor support.

Table is 40 x 8^4 inches, is coun-
terbalanced, and has vertical adjust-
ment of 8 inches, by means of a lever
provided with stops to permit of
making double or triple rows of mor-
tises in same line. It has an adjust-
ment endwise, with suitable stops for
regulating the length of mortise by
hand wheel, rack and pinion, as il-
lustrated.

Chisel is fixed to a reciprocating
frame moving in planed ways on the

NO. 144. AUTOMATIC HORIZONTAL HOLLOW CHISEL

MORTISER.

Made by J. A. Fay & Egan Company, Cincinnati,
Ohio.

top of the column. It is driven by
elliptic gears and has quick return at
the completion of the mortise. Three
speeds of feed to ram to allow for
wide range of sizes in chisels and
hard and soft woods.

Foot treadle at the base of the
machine governs the chisel thrust.
The stroke of the chisel is variable
by changing the crank pin on the
crank arm. The depth of mortise is
regulated either by the adjustment of
the table or the adjustment of the
stroke.

For further information those in-
terested should write the manufactu-
rers, J. A. Fay & Egan Company,
226-246 West Front street, Cincin-
nati, Ohio, who will be pleased to
send full particulars.

Mr. J. B. Comstock, for six years
with the Westinghouse Electric &
Manufacturing Company at its East
Pittsburg works, and for four years
manager of its publication depart-
ment and printing plant, severed
his connection with that company in
April, to accept a similar position
with the P. & F. Corbin Company, of
New Britain, Conn. Prior to Mr.
Comstock's connection with the West-
inghouse Company he filled the same
position with the Corbin Company
that he has recently been recalled to
assume.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

News Items

Mr. Henry D. Shute was ap-
pointed to the position of acting
vice-president of the Westinghouse
Electric & Manufacturing Company,
as of April i, 1910.

For seventeen years Mr. Shute has
been associated with this company,
and his promotions, from time to
time, have been of a character to
give him a broad experience in shop,
sales and executive work.

Mr. Shute studied electrical engi-
neering at the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology, from which in-
stitute he was graduated in 1892.
Following his graduation, he spent a
year's study in Germany at the
School of Mines, Clausthal, and also
in Dresden. It was in 1893 he en-
tered the works of the Westinghouse
Company at Pittsburg as an appren-
tice, spending his first two years in
the testing department, following
which he spent considerable time on
erection work, on laboratory work,
under Mr. C. F. Scott, and later as
assistant foreman of one of the de-
partments of the works. This natu-
rally gave him a broad experience
in shop work, which, with the de-
signing work on alternating-current
apparatus, which he subsequently
took up in the engineering depart-
ment, enlarged his experience still
more.

After five years' service with the
company, Mr. Shute took up work
in connection with the sales depart-
ment at the East Pittsburg office, and
in 1901 was made the head of the
alternating-current division, corre-
spondence department. Two years
later he was advanced to the posi-
tion of assistant to Vice-President
L. A. Osborne, which position he
held at the time of his recent ap-
pointment. In this latter position he
was active in the developments made
in heavy electric traction and, partic-
ularly, in single-phase railway work.

moved his office to Suite 1005 Singer
Building, having become associated
with the Universal Audit Company
as its chief engineer, in charge of
the design and development of, ef-
ficiency in industrial plants.

Mr. Stimpson has had a wide ex-
perience as an engineer, extending
over more than twenty-eight years,
having been previously connected
with many large organizations,
among which are the General Elec-
tric Company ; Dodge & Day, engi-
neers, Philadelphia ; The Roberts &
Abbott Company, engineers, Cleve-
land, Ohio, and The Emerson Com-
pany, efficiency engineers of New
York. He is also one of the lec-
turers in the very advanced course in
manufacturing plant design at Co-
lumbia University.

The general manager of the Uni-
versal Audit Company, Mr. W. M.
Williams, has had a wide experience
in the organization of industrial cor-
porations, gained by association with
men engaged in the formation and
successful management of several
large enterprises, among which were
The American Steel & Wire Com-
pany. The American Steel Hoop
Company and The American Can
Company.

This organization, which has a
capital of $150,000, is unique in that
it is the first one to cover the en-
tire field of commercial and techni-
cal organization and service required
bv present-day industrial concerns,
and to so combine the financial and
economic accounts with efficiency
standards as to demonstrate the ef-
ficiency of the management, together
with obtained financial results. Such
presentation is invaluable to those
seeking to increase capitalization.

Mr. H. F. Stimpson, consulting
engineer, 1 Madison avenue, has re-

Mason & Hanger, contractors for
one of the siphon tunnels on the
New York water supply extension,
are installing in their plant at Corn-
wall, N. Y., two large Ingersoll-
Rand Corliss duplex air compressors,
with a capacity of 5,200 cubic feet

MANUFACTURING NEWS

per minute. These machines have
cross-compound Corliss steam cyl-
inders and cross-compound two-stage
air cylinders. They are of the en-
closed dust-proof, flood-lubrication
type designed for high-speed opera-
tion at air pressure of 80 to 100
pounds. These contractors have also
placed an order for a full equipment
of Ingersoll-Rand rock drills, mount-
ings, steels, etc., for carrying on their
work.

Mr. L. J. Wing has recently re-
signed as president of the L. J. Wing
Manufacturing Company, and Mr. E.
D. Fieux has been elected as presi-
dent of the company, Mr. C. E. Cole
as vice-president, and Mr. H. S.
Wheller remains as secretary. Mr.
Wing still remains a director and
stockholder of the company and will
devote considerable time to its in-
terests.

The White Fireproof Construction
Company has removed its New York
offices from No. 1 Madison avenue
to larger and more commodious
quarters at 286 Fifth avenue.

Charles T. Jeffery, who for sixteen
years was a partner with his father,
the late Thomas B. Jeffery, in the
firm of Thomas B. Jeffery & Co.,
now assumes complete control of the
manufacture and sale of Rambler au-
tomobiles.

Mr. Jeffery is widely known in the
trade, having contributed much to
the development of the automobile
industry since its inception.

It is announced that the business
of Thomas B. Jeffery & Co. will con-
tinue without change in policy.

The Kerr Turbine Company of
Wellsville, N. Y., has arranged for
representation in two more Ameri-
can and three foreign cities as fol-
lows : San Francisco and Oakland,
Cal., United Iron Works ; London,
England, Economical Gas Appliance
Construction Company, Ltd. ; Mexico
Citv. J. H. Bloomberg; Sidney,
N. S. W., A. F. Partridge.

With the above the Kerr Turbine
Company now has active representa-
tives in twenty-six cities. The use in
Europe of American turbine units of
the small sizes built by this firm
would hardly seem to warrant repre-
sentation on the other side, but num-
erous Kerr turbines have been sold
in England alone, one customer there
having bought seven on repeat
orders.

Two Westinghouse low-pressure
steam turbines, each having a ca-
pacity of 500 kilowatts, have been
added to the power plant of the
Standard Steel Car Company, at
Burnham, Pa. These turbines utilize
the waste steam of the main equip-
ment, and are designed for a vacuum
of 28 inches, which will be provided
by Westinghouse-Leblanc condensers.
The energy thus conserved is applied
to two 500-KW. generators which
furnish light and power for the
shops.

As a steam auxiliary to its new
water-power station, the White River
Light & Power Company, Nobles-
ville, Ind., is adding a 300-kilowatt
Westinghouse high-pressure steam
turbine set. The new unit will be in-
stalled at the generating station, two
miles above Noblesville, on the White
River, furnishing three-phase, 60-
cycle power at 2,300 volts for light-
ing and power in the city. The tur-
bine is to operate at a steam pressure
of 150 pounds, exhausting into a
vacuum of 28 inches. Four hundred
horse-power of Babcock & Wilcox
boilers are installed, using Indiana
slack coal at $1.75 per ton. The
economy of the turbine equipment
makes it a comparatively inexpensive
auxiliary of the water-power appara-
tus during the variation of flow in
the course of water supply. The
water power installation of the White
River Company was only recently
completed, and has taken over the
furnishing of electrical energy to the
local lighting and power consumers.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

The Art of Making Violins

DESPITE the fact that no ancient
caveman, with his mind over-
packed with latent ingenuities,
ever dreamed of such an instrument as
the violin, nevertheless the craftsmen
of centuries dead and gone attained
far nobler achievements in this art
than the workmen of our modern hour
can hope, apparently, to reach. From
time to time a tale goes forth of a
long-lost cunning rediscovered. Le-
gends abound of secret processes
once possessed by makers of fine old
violins, and now too elusive for re-
capture. So far as he is able, the
workman of to-day reproduces faith-
fully the shape, the size and finish of
the instruments of old, in his effort
to equal their perfection. He works
in the old, time-honored manner. He
chisels the top and bottom of the
violin's body from solid blocks of
spruce and maple, coaxing the subtle
and delicate conformations through
a month of patient labor, putting his
soul and his yearning in the wood,
as perhaps no other hand-craftsman
may, in his search for an exquisite
tone. He is building a slender and
sensitive box with a wonderful power
to emit vibrations, marshalled into
order, and delivered forth as a voice.
No visible beauty of carven form and
no original departure from the set
design avails him in reaching his
goal. He seeks the intangible es-
sence of sound and the means for
its loftiest beauty. For him there
is no established law for alluring the
tone to some dimple in the wood, to
delight it to rapturous perfection.
He pursues an ignis fatuus of quiver-
ing air-waves that leads him onward
endlessly. He may only strive
toward achievement of this object as
strove his forbears of the craft, and
frequently with far less reward.

Perhaps more in this than in any
other craft of the hand-art world
does the strict adherence to old-time
models, methods, polishes, and even
glues, obtain. It is all because the
past still leads in excellence, and man
of to-day, with all his boasted prog-

ress, is still far behind in the delicate
art of creating those temples, shrines,
and homes of the goddesses of
sound.

The men we found engaged in
this old occupation had been reared
in the school of it from boyhood.
One in his youth made a tiny violin
not half the size of his palm — a per-
fect thing like a crystallization of his
zeal. When, during our visit, he
snatched a splendid 'cello from the
workroom wall, tightened the strings
to consonance, and flung upon them
the caressing bow, we knew why it
was that all these years he has made
these instruments, laboured in the
craft, and sought to capture that
rarest of elusive things — the perfect
and age-rich tone. — Philip Verrill
Mighels, in Harper's Magazine for
May.

Big Tires Wear Longest

THE longevity of tires, a most
vital problem with the auto-
mobile owner, has recently
been put to severe tests by experts in
the employ of Thomas B. Jeffery &
Co., makers of the Rambler.

These experiments have revealed a
remarkable difference in wearing
qualities between tires varying only
slightly in size.

Many cars, equipped with 36 by
45^-inch tires, were tested against
others equipped with tires 2 inches
smaller in diameter and l/2 inch
smaller in width. The larger tires
lasted just twice as long. The larger
wheels, as well, showed greater
power of resistance against strains,
being stronger than smaller ones be-
cause of their greater weight.

The marked difference between a
tire of large size and a smaller tire
is accounted for by the fact that
smaller wheels drop into holes in the
roadway, adding greatly to the wear
on tires, as weli as to the discom-
fort of the occupants of the car. Big
wheels and tires glide lightly over de-
pressions, providing wider cushioning
surface, and thus adding to comfort
as well as to tire economy.

MANUFACTURING NEWS

Book News

Gas Engines

The Design and Construction of Internal Com-
bustion Engines. A Handbook for Designers
and Builders of Gas and Oil Engines. By
Hugo Gtildner. Translated from the Second
Revised Edition, with Additions on American
Engines. By H. Diederichs. Size, 8 x 11
inches, pp. xx, 672; with 728 illustrations and
36 folding plates. New York: D. Van
Nostrand ompany.

Giildner's treatise on the gas engine
has enjoyed an international reputa-
tion since the appearance of the first
edition in 1902, and hence this re-
vised and greatly-enlarged edition
will be welcomed by engineers and
designers of power machinery. The
interval between the publication of
the two editions has marked a period
of enormous development of the in-
ternal-combustion engine, and this
growth is to be seen in the increased
size of this volume over that of the
first edition.

Part I, of the present volume, cov-
ering about fifty pages, deals with
the various cycles of operation, in-
cluding a critical comparison of the
four-cycle and the two-cycle engines,
this examination showing that while
there is theoretically no difference in
the efficiency of the two types, there
is a practical advantage in favor of
the two-cycle engine. In this respect
the author takes issue with Profes-
sor Riedler, who has maintained that
"the gas engine will revert to its
original starting point ; that is, to the
four-cycle principle," and maintains
that the "final solution will most
likely depend, not upon what can be
done, but upon what must be done."

The second, and most important
part of the book, is devoted to the
design and construction of internal-
combustion engines, and this will be
found exceedingly welcome to the
practical engineer, containing, as it
does, formulas and diagrams for the
proportions of the various parts, il-
lustrated and exemplified by dimen-
sioned details of engines by the lead-
ing European builders. In this por-
tion the author emphasizes the ne-
cessity for less invention and more

rational design, believing that ambi-
tion of restless inventors should be
abandoned in favor of the applica-
tion of the well-known principles of
machine design, as proven by science
and tested by practice.

Following the section upon design
comes a very full discussion upon
construction, erection, and testing,
this including illustrated descriptions
of the engines of the leading builders
of Europe ; to which the translator
has added similar material relating
to American gas engines.

A fourth section discusses fuels
and the phenomena of combustion in
gas engines, followed by an appendix
containing a synopsis of thermo-
dynamics, the principles of thermo-
chemistry, instructions for operation
and codes for the conduct of tests.
It is to be regretted that the revision
of the gas-engine testing code of the
American Society of Mechanical En-
gineers had not been completed in
time to permit its inclusion in the
present volume, and that the old
code had necessarily to be used.

Within the limits of space it has
been possible to give but a brief view
of the contents of this important
contribution to one of the leading de-
partments of engineering work. The
combustion engine is doubtless de-
stined to fill a large portion of the
field now occupied by the steam en-
gine, and every engineer engaged in
the work of gas-engine development
should possess and use this book.
It contains all the theory necessary
for a satisfactory understanding of
the principles, and such an abundance
of practical material as to render it
invaluable to the designer. The trans-
lator has done his work well, and is
especially to be commended for the
conversion of the metric dimensions
and constants in the formulas, tables
and drawings ; while the publisher is
also to be congratulated upon the me-
chanical execution of a difficult piece
of work.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Hydraulic Power

Hydro-Electric Practice. A Practical Manual of
the Development of Water Power, its Con-
version to Electric Energy, and its Distant
Transmission. By H. A. E. C. von Schon.
Size 7 x 9y2 inches, pp. xvi, 382, with 140
illustrations. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott
Company.

In view of the interest which is at
present indicated as regards the con-
servation of the hydraulic-power op-
portunities of various countries, es-
pecially in the United States, this
scientific treatise upon the methods
of development of hydraulic power is
to be welcomed. There are many
treatises upon hydraulics, and though
all the problems involved in the flow
of water are not yet solved, it is
not for lack of much writing about
them. The commercial development
of a power project, however, involves
much more than the mere measure-
ment of water flow and the de-
sign and construction of machinery.
There are other matters which, when
properly considered may make for
success, and which, if ignored, are
almost certain to involve failure,
matters which should be studied by
capitalists, financiers, and investors,
as well as by engineers, and it is
with such a broad and comprehen-
sive view of the subject that we are
provided in Mr. von Schon's excel-
lent book.

As he well says, the feature which
ranks first in importance is the mar-
ket for the power to be generated,
a purely commercial subject, demand-
ing first attention in the analysis.
The market being assured, the power
opportunity follows, including the
available flow and head, including
also questions of a legal and econo-
mical nature, as well as financial con-
siderations. After these come the
fundamental matters of cost synopsis
and its corresponding investment re-
lations, and then, and not until then,
are the questions of construction and
equipment to be taken up.

This second part of the treatment
includes the surveying- of the site,
including both area, run-off, seasonal
variations and structural features
upon which a development programme
mav be blocked out and the mechani-

cal details of dam, motors and trans-
mission determined. Finally comes
the question of the actual construc-
tion of the plant, a matter which has
been so fully provided for by other
treatises that the author considers it
merely as a sort of conclusion, this
in itself showing the original char-
acter of the book and its difference
from the ordinary treatise on water
power.

To the men who are realizing that
the future power supply of the world
must come from its running water,
and who, while not engineers them-
selves, realize that they must treat
the subject fundamentally in the
same manner as they would a new
railroad project, or a vast manufac-
turing combination, this book will be
most acceptable, while the practic-
ing engineer may learn from its
pages, if he has never learned it be-
fore, that he must be something
broader than a man of applied
science, and that he must become
familiar with financial and commer-
cial considerations in his work. The
modern engineer has been defined as
a man who can do for one dollar
what any fool can do for two dollars,
and he must have some books of
this sort if he is to learn the dollar
part of his profession.

Astronomy

The Evolution of Worlds. By Percival Lowell.
Size 8 inches by 5 inches, pp. xiv., 262. New
York : The Macmillan Company.

Again Professor Lowell comes be-
fore the public with a work which
is certain to attract attention. The
present book has already become
known, in part, by reason of the fact
that, in substance, it consists of lec-
tures which were delivered before
the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology ; but in their collected form
they present, as a whole, a view of
celestial mechanics which is of much
interest to the layman, and which
should have especial attraction to the
engineer.

Beginning with the question of the
birth of a solar system, that resur-

MANUFACTURING NEWS

rection which may be caused by the
shock of impact of some dead, dark
star with another of its kind, Pro-
fessor Lowell proceeds to show the
evidence of such an initial catastrophe
to which the birth of our own solar
system must have been due, followed
by a review of the condition of the
planets whose orbits lie within and
without that of the earth, and a dis-
cussion of the evidence upon which
we conclude that our own system did
thus have its origin.

In the supplementary notes there
are included such mathematical com-
putations as may attract the engineer,
but which would weary the general
reader, while a copious index con-
cludes a work of deep interest.

The Persistence of Old-Time Methods

In an interesting article upon some
of the industrial operations which
are still in active use in New York
City, Mr. Philip Verrill Mighels de-
scribes in Harper's Magazine the
work of the tapestry weavers of
Manhattan.

The looms v/e visited are new in
the city of Gotham. They are
tapestry looms of a pattern un-
changed after centuries of use. And
the art of the weaver of these
fabrics, we are told, is far too an-
cient for record.

The art we beheld is almost ab-
solutely unaltered. The looms are
installed in a studio place that was
once a palatial stable. They are
copies of what are known to the
craft as the Aubusson looms of
France. The men engaged in mak-
ing tapestries upon this old device
are foreign craftsmen, trained to
their guild and wondrously skilled in
the art.

It provided a singular sensation to
leave the busy, noisy thoroughfare of
modernity and ascend to that con-
clave of looms so allied to the past.
There were two great apartments de-
voted to this enginery of beauty.
Enginery seems the only adequate

word. The looms we saw are com-
binations of huge wooden frame-
works, beam-like levers, twining
ropes, and tightening devices, the
whole resembling those monstrous
stone-heaving catapults inseparable
from ancient war.

Unlike the tapestry looms at the
Gobelin workshops in Paris, these
are made to stretch the warp hori-
zontally, about waist-high to a man.
At the rear of each loom, on a
slanted bench, sit the weavers who
work the design. Beneath the warp,
and readily visible through its many
tight-stretched strands, the pattern
lies close under hand. It is drawn
on a monster sheet of paper and
colored with painstaking skill. Above
it bend the weavers of the cloth,
each softly supported with pillows.
One pillow to sit on and one on
which to lean, each workman adjusts
to his needs. His colors (the woofs)
are wound on spools, and resemble
a heap of large-sized, brightly
colored and differently hued cater-
pillars, ready to spin out their sub-
stance. There are frequently as
many as twenty or thirty of these
shuttles beneath one workman's
hands.

It is wonderful and utterly be-
wildering to see these craftsmen
weave. Their hands out-machine a
machine as they grasp at the warp,
to lift two, four, five, or any number
of strands, shoot a bobbin in and out,
and make a singular tie, to drop that
partinilar caterpillar, clutch up an-
other, tie in its thread, and pounce
upon a third or fourth, and return,
perhaps, to number one. They keep
those red, green, gold and purple
caterpillars in a constant state of agi-
tation. They grasp at the warp and
play in a strand and finger new
strings, as if the cords were the
wires of some silent harp on which
they play a ceaseless composition that
expresses itself in color. Yet fast as
their fingers seem to play upon this
soundless instrument, it is slow, hard
toil with eyes and hands to stitch in
those units of the scheme.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE
THE LATEST CATALOGUES

In writing for Catalogues, please mention Cassier's Magazine

Machine Tools

The Billings & Spencer Com-
pany, Hartford, Conn. Handsomely
printed and profusely illustrated cata-
logue of the machinists' tools manu-
factured by this firm, including those
well-known "B. & S." specialties,
such as adjustable wrenches, adjust-
able automobile wrenches and "S"
wrenches, adjustable pocket wrenches,
adjustable pipe wrenches, spanner
wrenches, all-steel screwdrivers, ma-
gazine screwdrivers, hammers, rat-
chet drills, lathe dogs, planer tool
holders, cutting-off tools, etc. The
catalogue contains much very valua-
ble information presented in an at-
tractive manner.

Drop Hammers

The Billings & Spencer Com-
pany, Hartford, Conn. Convenient
and attractive catalogue for 19 10,
handsomely illustrated and printed,
has just been issued. Contains full
description and many illustrations of
the drop hammers, trimming presses,
trimming millers, hot saws, heating
furnaces, annealing furnaces, etc.,
manufactured by this well-known
firm. The long list of representative
firms using the Billings & Spencer
Drop Hammers clearly indicate the
high esteem in which they are re-
garded.

Accumulators

Electric Storage Battery Com-
pany, Philadelphia, Pa. Bulletin No.
121 is devoted to an illustrated de-
scription of the newly-installed Chlo-
ride-Accumulator cells two series of
which have been connected into a
storage battery. This has been es-
tablished in order to mininmize the
fluctuations of the load on the gen-
erating station, and this unique
equipment has shown many advant-
ages not anticipated when the plant
was designed.

RocK Crushers

Jeffrey Manufacturing Com-
pany, Columbus, Ohio. Bulletin No.
39 published by this company de-
scribes the Jeffrey standard roll coal
crusher, the extra-heavy triple-geared
coal crusher, the standard roll coke
crusher, the Jeffrey salt crusher and
Jeffrey disintegrators and pulver-
izers. All these apparatus are clearly
and well illustrated.

Injectors

Ohio Injector Company, Wads-
worth, Ohio. In the new catalogue
No. 27 are found descriptions and
illustrations as well as prices of the
following machinery : locomotive, au-
tomatic and double- jet injectors, ejec-
tors, fire jets, sight-feed lubricators,
oilers and several types of valves.

Arc Lamps

General Electric Company,
Schenectady, N. Y. In Bulletin No.
4717 the flame arc lamps made by
the above-named concern are de-
scribed in detail and profusely illus-
trated. The lamps taken up com-
prise various types of direct and
alternating-current apparatus, a 1 1
parts of which are illustrated. Data
regarding all properties of these
lamps are also contained in this pub-
lication.

Gas Flow Meters

General Electric Company,
Schenectady, N. Y. Recording and
indicating meters measuring the flow
of air or steam in pressure pipes are
given a thoroughly detailed descrip-
tion in the company's Bulletin No.
4720, in which the construction and
operation of, as well as methods of
making observations with these in-
struments are treated. A number of
tables complete the information as-
sembled in this booklet.

MANUFACTURING NEWS

Cement

Alpha Portland Cement Com-
pany, Easton, Pa. A remarkably
handsome illustrated publication ex-
plaining in popular language the ap-
plications and uses of Portland
cement and the wide-spread use of
Alpha Portland cement by architects,
engineers and contractors. Data
concerning the methods of making
concrete, of comparative costs of
brickwork and concrete, and of the
methods of utilizing concrete for a
great variety of constructions are
given.

A convenient table of definitions of
cement terms, in popular language,
and a classified list of use for Port-
land cement, add to the value of the
pamphlet ; illustrations of buildings,
bridges, retaining walls, and similar
works in concrete are included.

Tube Cleaners

The General Specialty Com-
pany, Buffalo, N. Y. A pamphlet
entitled "Pictorial Proof," filled with
illustrations of the results with the
"Demon" and "Torpedo" cleaners for
removing scale from boiler tubes.
The construction of the tools is
clearly shown, and photographs of
the quantities of scale removed in-
dicate the effectiveness with which
they work. Diagrams showing the
loss due to scale in boilers and of the
power required for operating vari-
ous cleaners furnish useful informa-
tion.

Steel Lath

Trussed - Concrete Steel Com-
pany, Detroit, Mich. Pamphlet set-
ting forth the use of Hy-rib, a form
of steel lath, stiffened by rigid high
ribs, and adapted for the construc-
tion of floors, roofs, walls, parti-
tions, ceilings and furrings. This
material is adapted for use with
beams of reinforced concrete, steel,
or wood, and possesses marked ad-
vantages in all kinds of construc-
tion.

Expanded Metal

Northwestern Expanded Metal
Company, Chicago, 111. This com-
pany has just issued a booklet con-
taining various designing data for
the use of expanded metal and ex-
panded metal lath which will be valu-
able and interesting to builders and
mechanical engineers.

Aeronautic Motors

The Adams Company, Dubuque,
Iowa. The handsomely finished cata-
logue of this firm is devoted to the
description of the Adams-Farwell re-
volving motor, consisting of five cyl-
inders arranged around a common
crank in a horizontal plane. The
motor revolves without vibration and
acts as a gyroscope aiding to keep
the flying machine in the horizon-
tal position.

Furnaces

W. S. Rockwell Company, New
York. Catalogue No. 8 just pub-
lished by this firm describes and il-
lustrates" oil and gas-fired furnaces
for forging, flanging, plate heating,
angle-bending, spring-fitting, case-
hardening, tempering, annealing, etc.

Rotary Engines

Harriman Engine Company, Bos-
ton, Mass. Book C of this firm
treats of the rotary steam and gas
engines, compressors and pumps,
which were developed from the in-
ventions of Mr. J. E. Harriman, Jr.
The working operation of these ma-
chines is described and their advant-
ages explained.

Electric Motors

Fort Wayne Electric Works,
Fort Wayne, Ind. Bulletin 1119
takes up the description of the
Northern "B" type D. C. motors
built by this firm. The motor and
its coupling to various machines are
illustrated.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Hauling Power

A NUMBER of years ago, when
the practical possibilities of
long-distance power trans-
mission over a wire by means of
electricity were under development,
the question of the most efficient
method for the transmission of
power over considerable distances
came up for discussion before one
of the professional engineering so-
cieties. Electricity, compressed air,
hydraulic pressure and other meth-
ods all had their advocates; but the
fact was finally developed that by
far the most efficient method for de-
livering large amounts of power over
great distances was to be found in
the simple plan of hauling coal over
a railroad track.

Assuming that coal represents the
most concentrated form of stored en-
ergy with which we are familiar, at
least so far as commercial utilization
is concerned, and taking into account
the well-determined cost of railway
transport as the other element in the
problem, it might be easy to com-
pare this apparently crude method
of long-distance power transmission
with others in use and reduce the
statement to precise figures.

However this may be, there is no
doubt that for a long time to come
the use of the railway and the coal
car will continue to be the principal
means for conveying power in the
stored form of coal, and that elec-
tric transmission and its allies will
find their principal application in con-
nection with hydraulic power stations,
in which the passing energy must be
seized and delivered as it flows.

Just as the long-distance electric
transmission line, when it enters the
terminus, delivers the high-voltage
current to transformers and switches
for distribution to local users, so the
long coal train, or deeply-laden col-
lier delivers its burden of bottled-
up power to the storage yard or
wharf, from which it must be taken
to the bins or yards for subsequent

distribution. In this local handling
the specialized form of coal railway
and car comes into active service,
and, when properly designed and in-
stalled, forms as efficient a method in
its way as the main line railroad
does for the transit from the mine
to the metropolis.

It might be assumed that the local
railway, whether operated by steam,
electricity or cable, would be less per-
manent or durable than the wire over
which an electric current is carried,
but experience has demonstrated that
the machinery of transit is more en-
during than the power by which it
is driven. Thus, a local cable rail-
way, installed for the purpose of
taking coal from the wharf to stor-
age, a distance of 800 feet, and
handling more than 150,000 tons of
coal a year, has been in operation for
more than fourteen years, having
outlived two motor houses and one
entire timber trestle, besides the
wharf at which the coal was deliv-
ered. This corresponds to more
than two million tons carried 800
feet, or, say, 300,000 miles of serv-
ice. Since the plant from which
these figures were obtained is still in
service and gives every evidence of
continued long life, it is apparent
that the endurance of such a system
compares most favourably with that
of any other method of power trans-
mission, and confirms the view that
one of the most effective methods of
delivering power is to haul it on a
railway in the form of coal.

While the transport of power in
the form of coal is thus capable of
comparison . with the transmission of
power in the shape of electric en-
ergy, it must be remembered that
there are other materials besides coal
which demand transportation, and
for which the electric wire is not
available. These, too, can be car-
ried to the same advantage as coal
by similar methods, and thus the
railway has the advantage of flexibil-
ity as to material as well as effi-
ciency in operation.

Two Million Tons
Of Coal

Carried 800 Feet
By a

Hunt Cable Railway

L. G. Burnham & Company SWETT STREET WHARF, BOSTON, now
METROPOLITAN COAL CO.

In 1889, L. G. Burnham built a wharf, trestle and coal storage buildings in his Sweet
Street yard, Boston, using the Hunt Cable Railway to carry the coal from the wharf to tht
storage building, a distance of 800 feet.

In October, 1903, fourteen years later, during which time they handled, on an
average, 150,000 tons of coal each year, they still had in use the same cars, the same running
gears, the same sheaves, the same motor, the same engine and the same grips which were
originally put in.

The machinery has outlived two motor houses and one entire timber trestle.
The wharf has also been rebuilt.

The cost of handling material with this system is small, as the cars are dumped auto-
matically at any desired point and return to the starting place at the expense of loading the
cars and the cost of power to drive the cable.

We invite a careful investigation of this system for handling bulk materials, and a. request
for one will bring you a copy of our "Cable Railway" catalogue by return mail. It contains
illustrations of many plants we have installed as well as particulars of the railway.

C W. HUNT COMPANY

Established 1872

No. 45 BROADWAY
NEW YORK

Works : West New Brighton, S. 1.
NEW YORK

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Efficiency in Rope-Driving

WHEN it is necessary to
transmit power from one
rotating shaft to another
shaft parallel to the first, and within
a reasonable distance, there is prob-
ably no simpler method than to use
a flat belt of leather or rubber. In
practice, however, shafts are often
in other positions than in parallelism;
they are frequently too close or too
widely separated to enable a belt to
be used to advantage, and they are
frequently so situated that a belt can-
not be employed at all.

When ropes were first used in
place of belting they were employed
for the same direct service that had
been fulfilled by the belt, the num-
ber of ropes being made proportional
to the amount of power to be trans-
mitted, and each rope being separate
and independent of every other. This
method had the same limitations as
the ordinary flat leather belt, but
possessed certain advantages over
belting, especially for the transmis-
sion of large powers. When the
American system of rope drive was
introduced, however, using a single
rope wound a number of times over
the driving pulleys and over tension
and winding idlers, the scope of rope
driving became immensely extended,
and it was found possible to deliver
power between shafts very close to-
gether, very widely separated, situ-
ated at any relative angle, with either
direct or reverse motion.

When to these possibilities were
added such important features as
lower first cost, less maintenance ex-
pense, freedom from noise, absence
of slip and large overload capacity,
it was found that rope driving had
many applications, and it naturally
came into most extensive use.

A well-designed rope drive looked
so nice and ran so smoothly that
very often an inexperienced engineer
thought that he could install just the
thing he needed without consulting
any expert engineer. The result of
such attempts was very frequently

either failure or inefficiency, and such
experiences served to discredit a sys-
tem which, . had it been properly in-
stalled, would have given full satis-
faction and high efficiency.

A rope drive should be designed in
each instance and be adapted in
every case to the actual conditions
obtaining as regards location, capa-
city, speeds and nature of service.
A design which is giving perfect sat-
isfaction and high efficiency cannot
be copied blindly for use in another
place with assurance that it will give
good service, since the operative con-
ditions may vary to such an extent
as to require entirely different treat-
ment. Such copying resembles the
practice of taking medicine for one
ill which had been prescribed for
some ailment of an entirely different
nature, and the results in the two
cases have about the same chance
of success.

The importance of individual de-
sign in rope driving for the attain-
ment of high efficiency is demon-
strated by the fact that the principal
installations which have produced re-
markable results are those to the de-
sign of which was brought the widest
experience and the greatest degree of
skill. The works manager is some-
times self-deceived in this matter by
the fact that the narrow limitations
of belt driving have rendered it pos-
sible for him to become familiar with
the best available methods for the
belt system of power transmission,
and hence he feels equally competent
to solve any installation for rope
driving. As a matter of fact, the
best engineering skill should be
given to either belt or rope driving,
and it is only by such attention that
maximum efficiency can surely be at-
tained ; but the remarkable flexibility
of the American system of rope driv-
ing renders it practically impossible
for anyone who is not closely fa-
miliar with its possibilities to insure
the attainment of that efficiency
which the experienced engineer can
readilv secure.

The Efficiency of a
Rope Drive is in the Design

Rope drives, correctly planned, are the most satisfactory form of
transmission for a great many situations.

But successful, economical rope drives represent many intricacies
of design — learned only through long experience.

We have been designing and furnishing rope drives for more than
twenty-five years. ^^^r

We know the high efficiency that can be secured from them, arid
we know those fine points of design necessary to secure this efficiency.

Hundreds of Dodge Rope Drives are operating in all sorts of plants,
under all sorts of conditions. \

Operating with minimum friction loss, noise and maintenance
expense.

And demonstrating the excellence of our designs, as worked out by
the corps of engineers which we maintain for the solution of power
transmission problems.

If you are contemplating the installation of any transmission equip-
ment, let our transmission specialists advise with you as to the efficiency
to be gained by one of our American System Rope Drives.

We will be glad to submit plans for a Dodge Rope Drive, the
profitable operation of which we can warrant..

Simply send us information
>and sketches, showing conditions
to be met, and secure our plans
for consideration.

Our Book\C~76," Twenty1- five years of Rope Driving,'
contains valuable information on this subject This
book is 9' x 12" , 104 pages, price $1.00. However- ^
to owners, managers, superintendents, master
mechanics and chief engineers of power-
using plants, interested in this subject, S
we will be glad to send a compli- * „. Dod5e
mentary copy. ^ stftUon E_u
Send the coupon or write. y* Mishawaka, Indiana

Dt| 0 -m m- a • j g~^ ' Please send me your

o d £ e Manuiacturing i^o. .' »«*• ° -*■. '*™w.

^ _ ,. ^ j» Years of Rope Driving.

Sta. E - 11, Mishawaka, Indiana S

* I live in state of - — -

New York St, Louis Philadelphia Chicago Boston /^

Pittsburg Atlanta *

Brooklyn Minneapolis

AGENCIES IN OTHER PRINCIPAL CITIES

"EVERYTHING FOR THE MECHANICAL

Post Office.

My Position

With Firm of -

TRANSMISSION OF POWER"

/ My Name.

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Flexibility in Shop Operations

ONE of the remarkable dif-
ferences between the old-time
machine shop and the mod-
ern works appears in the extent to
which the work is ' performed along
the lines of least resistance. For-
merly the heavy tools were placed
where it was most convenient to stand
them, regardless of the difficulties and
delays which might be produced in
their operation. Very often the con-
trolling consideration was the de-
livery of the power, and the position
of the shafting and the location of
driving pulleys being the first things
to be considered, were allowed far
more weight than subsequent con-
venience in operation.

In the modern shop it is the results
which count. The routing of the
work controls the placing of the
tools, and the handling machinery is
installed to facilitate every movement
of the work in its continuous progress
from the crude to the finished state.
Tools are made portable whenever
practicable, if heavy work is to be
operated upon, following out the
principle that the smaller should be
taken to the larger. Thus, the older
riveting machine was large, heavy
and stationary. A big girder or a
large boiler-shell had to be slung,
manipulated and moved accurately to
position, necessitating slow opera-
tions, and forbidding any attempt at
rapidity. To-day the portable riv-
eter does the work, and the heavy
piece, once brought to the proper
place in the shop, remains station-
ary until the work on it is com-
pleted. To suspend and control the
heavy piece of work itself demanded
a powerful crane of deep reach, and
the fact that "large bodies move
slowly" was continually demon-
strated. The portable riveter, how-
ever, may readily be suspended from
a Triplex block attached to an over-
head trolley, and the whole brought
promptly and precisely to the point
of operation, all the activity being
transferred to the smaller and lighter
mechanism. This is but one illus-

tration of the modern method, but it
serves to show how the tendency
toward facility and flexibility in ma-
chine-shop operations is increasing
the productive capacity of the estab-
lishment. Fewer men with greater
output is the aim, and this with less
effort on the part of the men who
remain. The old-time labouring
gang is rapidly disappearing, or is
greatly reduced in numbers, and the
heavy work is either performed by
machinery, or, by skillful re-arrange-
ment of methods, is avoided, so that
lighter, more convenient and more
efficient devices may be employed.
It is all a part of the industrial evo-
lution which is continually going on
about us, and it makes for better
work, more easily performed, at less
cost.

All this development in flexibility
in shop operations is the result of
the united efforts of many men and
many manufacturers, extending over
a period of years, and bearing its
fruition gradually as the time has
passed on. The chain block, as orig-
inally produced in the form of the
differential hoist, and passing through
the stages of the duplex and Triplex
block, was originally devised merely
for the purpose of lifting loads and
replacing with greater convenience
and efficiency the old-time rope
tackle. Having accomplished the
purpose for which it was primarily
devised, its use has been extended
into the wider field of general shop
service as an attendant upon vari-
ous machine tools to hold and guide
the work, and to bring the tool itself
to the point of application, thus aid-
ing in the transformation to which
reference has already been made.

Such appliances as the triplex
block have been called "labor-saving"
devices, doubtless because they have
reduced the amount of mere physi-
cal effort demanded in performing
certain operations. As a matter of
fact, such inventions increase the
amount of work actually done because
they enable much more to be accom-
plished with the same effort.

A Triplex Block for Quick

and Accurate
Adjustment

IN rivetting a box girder,
take the girder to a rivet -
ter on a Triplex Block.
Thus the rivetter may be in-
stantly brought into position
and guided to the right spot
with unfailing accuracy.

And for speed and accuracy
nothing answers the purpose
as well as a Triplex Block
suspended from a trolley, as
shown in the accompanying
illustration. Possessing in
itself the simplest, strongest
and easiest running hoisting-
mechanism ever built, it can
be operated by one man.

For simplicity, economy, dura-
bility and security , it is the handiest
one-man mechanism found in any
structural shop to-day.

CHAIN BLOCKS

4 styles: Differential, Duplex. Triplex, Electric
42 sizes: One-eighth of a ton to forty tons.
300 active stocks: ready for instant call all over
the United States.
The Book of Hoists tells much— for a Post Card.

The Yale & Towne
Mfg. Co.

Only Makers of Genuine Yale Products

9 Murray Street, New York

Boston
Chicago

Philadelphia
San Francisco

Foreign Warehouses: The Fairbanks Co. , London and Glasgow. Fenwick Freres & Co Paris, Brussels,

Uege and Turin. Yale & Towne Co., Ltd., Hamburg F \\ . Home, Yokohama.

Canadian Warehouses: The Canadian Fairbanks Co., Ltd., Montreal, Toronto, St. John, N. B.,

Winnipeg, Calgary, Vancouver.

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Mechanical Invention, Discovery and
Exploration

MECHANICAL or industrial in-
' v'entions, such, for instance,
as are usually the subject of
letters patent, seem to be of two
quite distinct types — so essentially
unlike, in fact, that they may, per-
haps, be better differentiated and dis-
tinguished by using different words
in speaking of them. To the one,
and the most numerous, class, the
word "invention" intelligibly applies,
while those of the other class may
be designated as discoveries.

In the one case the inventor sets
■out to accomplish some definite re-
sult, usually by mechanical agencies,
and for this he selects combinations
of operative devices, mostly familiar
in detail, but which accomplish the
new result desired. Of:this class of
true inventions are the"'' typewriter
and the sewing machine, and, in a
larger way, the locomotive.

The inventions of the other class,
the discoveries or "happy thoughts,"
are recognizable by all' as essentially
different from these. They come to
the few ; they come in their entirety
at once ; they come unheralded ; but
they do come to those who are alertly
and intelligently seeking such things
rather than to those who are not so
on the lookout. Sometimes the dis-
covery is that of an important detail
of a more or less familiar but con-
stantly improvable machine, as, for
instance, the piston inlet of the an
compressor. Such a discovery as
that bars all imitation ; you either
have it or you have it not, and, when
priority of discovery is established, it
completely protects itself against all
infringement.

In the discovery class we must
place also the electric air drill. It
combines a single happy thought
which is the central and dominating-
idea of the apparatus as a whole.

The discovery analogy extends be-
yond the first incident of perception,
recognition and appropriation. After
the discovery becomes an accom-

plished fact the thing discovered
must still be investigated and, as we
might say, explored, that all its bear-
ings and relations may be known and
all its accompanying advantages made
available, just as an island or a con-
tinent newly discovered must be ex-
plored and mapped. To the ex-
plorer surprises come, and it often
happens that he finds the world more
enriched by the new discovery than
was at first realized. Analogous to
this are the revelations which expe-
rience brings concerning the electric
air drill.

When the idea of it wras first en-
tertained it was evident at once that
here was provided at least the possi-
bility of dispensing with air-com-
pressor plants and long lines of pip-
ing in mining and other rock-cutting
operations. In the adoption of revolu-
tionary improvements it is seldom
that it is all clear gain. There are
usually sacrifices or compromises to
be made, and before the final adop-
tion of the electric air drill these
were to be looked for. They have
not been found. ? The drill in work-
ting is not in auf respect inferior to
•.the drill driven by constant air press-
ure. The drill itself is much sim-
plified, the most troublesome and
costly details, both in construction
and maintenance, having been elimi-
nated. The drill actually strikes a
harder blow, because the air from
one pulsator follows the piston with
an increasing pressure, while the
other pulsator makes a decreasing
pressure on the other side of the pis-
ton. The drill practically forgets its
old habit of sticking in the holes, be-
cause the pulsators keep the air yank-
ing at it, one side and then the other,
so that if it does stick for a mo-
ment it is free again before any-
thing can be done about it. The
most surprising thing of all is that
the electric air drill requires much
less than one-half the power, at the
source of power, which the direct air-
operated drill requires to do the same
work.

INGERSOLL-RAND CO.

NEW YORK

CHICAGO

"ELECTRIC
AIR"

ROCK DRILLS

Mining men, quarry men, contractors
and engineers have for years been
looking for a practical means of
drilling rock by electric power — a
drill in which the power was used for
drilling instead of in wearing out
the machine.

The "Electric-Air" Drill is the first machine that has met this fundamental
requirement. It not only drills as fast as the standard air drill, but it requires
not more than half the power of the latter.
Added to this saving of power is a splendid "stand up" capacity. For there is
nothing electrical about it, but the motor. The drill is a powerful air drill, wilh
the tremendous endurance of the standard Ingersoll-Rand rock drill.
Power cost cut in half; labor and repair costs not increased; capa-
city just as great as any rock drill— do these features appeal to you as
the solution of the drill problem in that electrically equipped plant of yours?
Pamphlet 4009 may give you some new idea of the "electric drill question." Shall
we send it to you? Remember, the Ingersoll-Rand guarantee is back
of the "Electric-Air" drill.

Products :
AIR COMPRESSORS
ROCK DRILLS
HAMMER DRILLS
ELECTRIC-AIR DRILLS
CORE DRILLS
COAL CUTTERS
CHANNELERS
PNEUMATIC TOOLS
PNEUMATIC HOISTS
PNEUMATIC PUMPS

DOMESTIC OFFICES:
Birmingham El Paso

Boston

Butte

Chicago

Cleveland

Denver

Duluth

Philadelphia
Pittsburg
St. Louis
Salt Lake
San Francisco
Seattle

FOREIGN OFFICES :
Budapest Mexico

Dusseldorf Montreal

Johannesburg Paris

Kobe Valparaiso

Melbourne Yokohama

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S) MAGAZINE.
6l

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Fireproof Construction

ONE of the features of rein-
forced concrete construction
for factories and manufac-
turing buildings of all sorts appears
in the effectiveness with which fire-
proof construction is attained by
such systems.

The materials of which concrete is
composed — cement, broken stone,
sand or cinder — have already been
through the fire, and can be no
further harmed by it, and their com-
bination with proper metal reinforce-
ment gives a structure which in-
cludes both the compressive strength
and the fire resistance of the con-
crete and the tensile resistance of the
metal, the latter being imbedded
deeply enough to insure its protection
against any deformation by heat.

Concrete walls and foundations are
well enough known, but it is also well
known that these alone are not suffi-
cient to insure protection against fire.
Partition walls, floors, roofing — all
these may furnish food for flames
if they are made of inflammable ma-
terials, and hence it is necessary to
resort to monolithic construction,
with all its attendant expense, unless
some other method becomes possible.

It is only natural that this ele-
ment in reinforced concrete con-
struction should be considered by en-
gineers who have devoted themselves
to this department of work. Vari-
ous forms of metallic lath have been
produced, these requiring studding,
to which they are attached, or metal-
lic construction of some sort to form
the resistance of the surface against
deflection stresses. One of the most
effective of such devices, however,
is so devised as to include within it-
self the necessary stiffening, being
made with deep ribs, which, in them-
selves, offer resistance against de-
flection, and render unnecessary any
purlins, studding, or similar auxil-
iaries.

Such a material can be used for
form siding or partitions simply by
setting it up in position and apply-
ing the plaster to both sides, this

forming a thin concrete slab of great
rigidity, which is proof against fire
and decay. Since the effect of the
studding is included in the stiffening
ribs of the lath, no studs such as
are required for ordinary lath are
needed.

When, used for roof construction
the ribbed lath is laid over the steel
purlins, the concrete being poured in
from above and the under side plas-
tered. It is evident that this method
does away with the necessity for
any centering or falsework, and thus
one of the principal items of expense
in concrete-slab work is avoided.
The advantages of the method are
evident, and the system has been
employed in hundreds of buildings
throughout the United States.

It is apparent that this system for
the construction of floors and parti-
tions is not limited to factory build-
ings, and it has been successfully
employed on buildings designed for
offices, stores, hotels and similar pur-
poses. It is also applicable for fur-
ring walls and for the construction
of arched floors.

The care which is being taken to
extend the use of reinforced con-
crete construction to all details of the
work is apparent in the design of
this so-called Hy-rib material, includ-
ing, as it does, the flat lath surface
and the raised rib to give it the neces-
sary stiffness. Properly designed
beams and reinforced walls enable
the main structure to be erected in
a wholly fireproof manner, while this
type of stiffened lath adds to the
walls and beams the necessary rein-
forcement which permits partitions
and floors to be made in a manner
equally safe and resistant.

In the early days of reinforced
concrete construction many designs
were made which were both unsatis-
factory and inefficient ; the applica-
tion of sound engineering principles
and of inventive talent has made it
practicable to secure all the advan-
tages of concrete, reinforced with
steel, in a manner at once economical
and efficient.

Hy-Rib Roofs and Siding

To make your factory or warehouse permanent and fireproof at very little cost, use HY-RIB
plastered with cement for roofs and siding. Saves insurance, repairs and painting. Much more
economical than short-lived, leaky corrugated iron or quick-burning wood sheathing.

Used in hundreds of buildings for Roofs, Siding, Floors, Ceilings, Firring, etc.

Hy-Rib is a steel sheathing stiffened by deep ribs
made from the same sheet of steel. Does away with
centering in floors and roofs, and with studs in
walls and partitions.

Merely set the Hy-Rib sheets in place, apply the cement mortar, and the
slab is complete. So simple, that your own men or local builders can erect it.

Before you build, write us for complete information and free Hy-Rib
Catalog.

Hy-Rib is one of the products of the Kahn System of Reinforced Concrete
— used in over 4,000 important buildings.

TRUSSED CONCRETE STEEL CO.

546 Trussed Concrete Building, Detroit, Mich

KAHN
SYSTEM

Reinforced
Concrete

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Quality in Transmission Machinery

IN the old millwright days, when
shafting, pulleys, hangers and all
the details of power-transmitting
machinery were made in a rather
rough-and-ready manner, they were
not considered as machinery at all,
but rather as a sort of builders'
work; and, so long as they did the
work, .small attention was paid to
their crude appearance, excessive
weight and low efficiency.

At the present time, however,
there is probably no portion of ma-
chine design to which more care is
given than that including transmis-
sion elements. Engineers have begun
to realize that a considerable por-
tion of the power which is produced
in the engine room or turbine house
is absorbed in delivering it to the
point where it is used, and they have
also found out that true shafting,
balanced pulleys, continuously lubri-
cated bearings and firm hangers and
pillow blocks all make for the re-
duction of power wastes and the at-
tainment of high efficiencies.

The superintendent or engineer
who is purchasing a lathe, milling
machine or planer makes a most
careful inspection of the design and
execution of the tool before he de-
cides upon its purchase and installa-
tion in the shop, and yet in many,
very many, instances such a tool,
even under its heaviest duty, con-
sumes less ' energy than the power-
transmitting elements by which it is
served. That these facts are realized
by the modern operative engineer
and manufacturer is evident by the
extent to which a high degree of
perfection is demanded in manufac-
turing establishments of the better
class. It is not enough that shaft-
ing shall be fairly round and rea-
sonably straight; it must be true,
stiff and highly finished. Pulleys,
especially of wide face, should have
not only a standing balance, but run
truly in balance at the speeds re-
quired for modern cutting tools ;
hangers should be of graceful de-
sign, and be rigid without exces-

sive weight ; bearings should be
properly proportioned and continu-
ously lubricated, without wasting
oil ; and, in general, all the funda-
mental principles of machine design
should be observed with the same
juricious care as with a machine tool
of the highest class.

In connection with the subject of
transmission machinery it is interest-
ing to note the increasing use of the
clutch for connecting and discon-
necting members in starting and
stopping. Formerly a clutch was
used only when absolutely necessary,
dependence being placed upon shift-
ing belts and similar contrivances.
The introduction of rope driving
with grooved sheaves and multiple
turns rendered fast-and-loose pul-
leys impracticable, and hence some
effective and reliable form of clutch
became necessary. With the de-
velopment of satisfactory clutches
for large powers it was thus found
possible to do away with the trouble-
some loose pulley, and to-day the
high-class clutch forms an essential
element in a well-designed transmis-
sion system. The extent to which
the clutch is used in connection with
the automobile is ample evidence of
the popularity of this method of
control, permitting, as it does, the
gradual engagement or prompt re-
lease of connection with a continu-
ously running motor.

The present time is marked for the
efforts which are being made on all
sides for the reduction of wastes,
and the whole question of profit or
loss sometimes depends upon the
utilization of waste products. In
many manufacturing establishments
the waste of power forms a very
important item in useless expendi-
ture.

The wise manager, in his efforts
to stop all leaks, does well to investi-
gate the extent to which power
losses in transmission may be mini-
mized, and thus is brought to realize
the monetary value of high quality
in all departments of the transmis-
sion svstem of his establishment.

annfacttmng ||jeius

The Transmission System of the Idaho-
Oregon Power Company

THE present transmission system
of the Idaho-Oregon Light &
Power Co. in the region sur-
rounding Boise, Idaho, comprises
two water power generating stations,
one of 1,500 kilowatts capacity at the
Horsehoe Bend of the Fayette River
and one of 900 kilowatts capacity
at Barber Dam on the Boise River,
six miles from the city of Boise, to-
gether with about 112 miles of high
tension transmission line, approxi-
mately one-half of which operates at
the transmission potential of 66,000
volts and one-half at 23,000 volts.

The two generating stations, above
referred to, at the present time supply
the principal load of the system, the
lighting and traction service of the
city of Boise, through 23,000 volt
lines. To supply the region north
and west of Boise, where, besides the
local service, power is used for min-
ing, a transformer sub-station has
been installed at Emmett, 42 miles
from the city and 16 miles beyond
the power plant on the Horseshoe
Bend line, stepping up from 23,000
to 66,000 volts through three 1,000
kilowatt delta-connected Westing-
house transformers. From this sta-
tion the 66,000 volt lines continue
through the Plymouth and Ontario
sub-stations to the Weiser sub-

station. Sixty-five miles northwest of.
this point the Idaho-Oregon Com-
pany is building the great Oxbow
hydraulic water-power plant on the
Snake river, which will make avail-
able approximately 30,000 horse-
power, and will ultimately be used to*
supply the principal load of the sys-
tem at Boise at a transmission dis-
tance of 125 miles.

When the Oxbow station is com-
pleted and put into operation, the
Horseshoe Bend and the Barber
Dam plants will be operated as
auxiliary generating stations.

One of the interesting develop-
ments of the Idaho-Oregon installa-
tion has been the performance, as re-
corded in service, of the Westing-
house type "GA" oil circuit breakers.
On this transmission system there
are now four of these three-pole
units operating. Two of these are
in the Emmett sub-station and one
in each of the Weiser and Ontario
sub-stations.

The Westinghouse type "GA"
circuit breaker is made up of single
pole units immersed in oil in separate
boiler steel tanks, without other con-
nections than the operating or pull
rods working the contacts. The
operating system consists of a single
arrangement of levers, bell cranks
and links, actuated by a toggle from
the switchboard handle. The trip

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

coils are actuated from the low ten-
sion winding of series transformers
connected in the line wires. In the
newer and present standard type of
these circuit breakers above, ioo am-
peres capacity, these series trans-
formers are mounted directly over
the high tension bushings of the
breaker forming a part of the
breaker.

The 66,000-volt "GA" circuit
breakers for the Idaho-Oregon sys-
tem have a total break of about 17^2
inches per contact, or 35 inches per
pole. Each breaker has a rated ca-
pacity of 300 amperes, being especi-
ally designed to open the circuit un-
der severe conditions. The small
space and head room required by this
apparatus especially recommends it
for installations where space is
limited, and the thorough insulation
afforded by its oil immersed con-
tacts in lined tanks, the internal in-
sulating barriers and condenser ter-
minals insure the reliability and
safety of its operation in handling
the heaviest overloads and short cir-
cuits. The ease with which these
circuit breakers are installed and ad-
justed and the accessibility of all
operating parts for examination are
also important items in gaining the
favor of operating men where "GA"
breakers have already been put into
service.

The "GA" circuit breakers on the
lines of the Idaho-Oregon Light &
Power Company have already been
operated more than six months, and
during this time have handled some
extreme overloads and surges in a
manner gratifying to the company's
engineers. Several surges have oc-
curred in which the voltage rose be-
yond the scale of the meters, 90,000
volts. These phenomena have been
observed during heavy wind storms
and when the Boise sub-station trips
out. The Boise load is inductive and
tends to neutralize the heavy capacity
of the lightly loaded transmission
line. No static appears on these ter-
minals, although at times the wiring
and porcelain insulators have dis-

played considerable corona. The
performance of these circuit break-
ers has been a source of much satis-
faction to the operating officials, as
their operation has been uneventful
and dependable under all conditions
so far met during the most severe
season of the year.

The complete electrical equipment
of the power generating and trans-
mission system, including alternators,
sub-station apparatus, transformers,
switchboards and circuit breakers,
was furnished by the Westinghouse
Electric & Manufacturing Company,
Pittsburg, Pa.

ALTERNATING-CURRENT CONTROLLER.

Electric Controller & Manufacturing Company,
Cleveland, Ohio.

A New Line of Alternating-Current
Controllers

UNTIL quite recently, direct mo-
tors were used almost exclu-
sively for operating electri-
cally-driven cranes and mill ma-
chinery. However, the flexibility
and ease with which alternating-cm -
rent may be transmitted have within
the past few years resulted in a
large and increasing use of alternat-
ing-current motors for these appli-
cations.

MANUFACTURING NEWS

ALTERNATING-CURRENT CONTROLLER.

Electric Controller & Manufacturing Company,
Cleveland, Ohio.

For this character of work the
series-wound direct current motor
has the very desirable characteristic
of high starting torque. In alternat-
ing-current motors this feature is
more nearly found in the slip ring
type of motor than in the squirrel
cage type. Therefore for the opera-
tion of cranes, mill tables and other
reversing work of a similar nature,
the development of the alternating-
current motor has leaned heavily to-
wards the use of the slip ring mo-
tor. Speed and torque control are
obtained by inserting and varying re-
sistance in the secondary winding of
the motor.

The Electric Controller & Manu-
facturing Company, of Cleveland,
Ohio, has developed a comprehensive
line of manually operated controllers
for slip ring- alternating-current mo-
tors from one to one hundred horse-
power. These controllers follow as
closely as possible in design and con-
struction the direct-current con-
trollers which this company has been
manufacturing for years. In fact,
wearing parts on alternating-current
and direct-current controllers are in-
terchangeable to a large extent.

The controllers illustrated are for
use in connection with reversing slip
ring motors, either two-phase or
three-phase. The resistance is en-
tirely self-contained, it being neces-
sary to connect only seven leads to

the controller. Where heavy cur-
rents are to be handled, cast grid
resistance is employed and unusual
precautions have been taken to in-
sure insulation which will be per-
manently satis factor)'.

The operation of all of these con-
trollers is by a lever motion which
the manufacturers consider advan-
tageous for crane and mill service.
Although the cuts illustrate con-
trollers for slip ring motors only, yet
the Electric Controller & Manufac-
turing Company has furnished and
is prepared to supply controllers for
squirrel cage motors and alternating-
current commutating motors.

With the Railroads of Three Countries

THREE railroad articles of
widely diverse character are
found in the June number of
The World's Work. In addition
there is an excellent full-page por-
trait of Mr. W. S. Stone, secretary
of the Brotherhood of Locomotive
Engineers. "The Shifting Railroad
Control" is the title of a valuable ar-
ticle by C. M. Keys, which reviews
the sweeping changes in our railroad
ownership and control since the
death of Mr. Harriman. The pres-
ent condition may be seen at a
glance from Mr. Keys' maps of each
system as it exists to-day.

In the mass of railroad stories,
truth and fiction, it would be diffi-
cult to find anything as interesting
as Charles Frederick Carter's remini-
scences in connection with the "Big
Hill" of the Canadian Pacific. This
dreaded four-mile stretch, with its
237 feet to the mile incline and 11. 5°
curves, has finally been eliminated by
two spiral tunnels and the expendi-
ture of $1,270,000.

Half-way around the world from
the scene of the other two articles
and differing widely from either of
these is a profusely illustrated article
on "Manchuria's Strategic Railroad,"
by a Japanese, Mr. T. Iyenaga, a
professional lecturer of the Uni-
versity of Chicago.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

FAY & EGAN NEW HAND BENCH PLANER.

A New Bench Hand Planer

REALIZING the many practical
advantages of having a small
hand planer in the wood shop,
the J. A. Fay & Egan Company,
have designed a machine, called their
No. 254 Bench Hand Planer. This
machine will do a great variety of
small work. It occupies very little
space and accomplishes the work
more rapidly and conveniently than
a large machine. The construction
of the machine is as complete in
every respect as the large type of
machine. Tables six inches by 20
inches long are adjustable on long
gibbed inclines free from vibration,
and the fence is arranged to angle
to 45 degrees. Cutter head bearings
are of improved self-oiling type.
The manufacturer's safety circular
cutter head is used on this machine.
With each machine the manufac-
turers furnish at slight extra charge,
when ordered, a bench box on which
to set the machine. The box has a
hole in the top to receive the shav-
ings and is supplied with doors for
removing the shavings.

The manufacturers have just is-
sued a descriptive circular of this
machine which they will be glad to
send you by return mail. Address
the manufacturers at 226-246 W.
Front St., Cincinnati, Ohio.

Standardization in Automobile WorK

IN an address recently delivered by
Mr. Howard E. Coffin, presi-
dent of the Society of Automo-
bile Engineers, the subject of the op-
portunities for standardization of au-
tomobile work is emphasized, and the
following extracts will show the ex-
tent to which such standardization
may well be effected without ham-
pering the individuality of the de-
signer and builder.

It is superfluous to say anything
as to the great .need for concerted
action on the part of our motor car
engineers. Every purchasing depart-
ment in the business is being seri-
ously hampered in its work by the
utter lack of uniformity in the ma-
terial specifications, which are be-
ing passed on to them by our engi-
neering departments. Every indi-
vidual engineering department is a
law unto itself in nearly all matters
touching design and the preparation
of specifications. Individuality of
design is one thing and should be en-
couraged. Individuality in specifica-
tions is largely useless and should
be restricted within reasonable limits.
As a case in point, the engineering
department of one concern has lately
delivered to its purchasing depart-
ment material specifications upon
which six months' delivery dates are

MANUFACTURING NEWS

the best promised. As a direct ex-
cuse for this delay the mills report
their utter inability to care properly
for the multitudinous and special de-
mands which are being made upon
them by motor car engineers. Among
the similar situations which con-
fronted the mechanical branch some
three years ago was the question of
steel tubing sizes and deliveries. The
tube mills reported to the investigat-
ing committee not less than 1,600
different sizes of tubing which they
were being asked to supply for the
motor car trade. Few, if any, stan-
dard sizes could be stocked, because
of the minute and immaterial differ-
ences in the specification in each in-
dividual case. The committee hav-
ing this work in hand unearthed the
further astonishing information that
the specifications being turned in to
the tube mills by individual auto-
mobile makers building only one
or two models covered not less than
eighty distinct sizes or thickness of
wall.

With purchase orders in hand cov-
ering i, 600 different specifications
through the comparatively limited
range of the tubing diameters used
i.i motor car work, it is small won-
der that the expression of the tube
mills' management to our committee
was "for God's sake, do something."
The net result of the mechanical
branch work in connection with the
tube mills will be found in a printed
and framed table supplied to every
engineering department within the
association. In this table were listed
something like 150 sizes of tubing
actually needed in automobile work,
and upon which practically im-
mediate delivery was guaranteed by
the mills.

This tubing list again needs at-
tention. The sheet metal situation
is little better than was that upon
tubing three years ago. There are
a dozen other examples which might
be cited wherein standardization
work would in no way affect indi-
viduality of design, but would very
greatly lessen the purchasing depart-
ment problem.

We see much in the press and in
the advertising columns about the
standardization of the modern motor
car. There may be something in
ihis term, if by it we mean that every
car has a motor, a clutch, a trans-
mission, a frame, springs and axles,
but it is not any of these big gener-
alities which cause the trouble or
which need standardizing. It is the
little things — the little things which
are different merely because they are
different and for no good reason —
which keep the purchasing depart-
ments in hot water and delay pro-
duction. Nine times out of ten it is
not the unavoidable act of Provi-
dence which delays the output — it is
the irresponsible draftsman or de-
signer who is permitted to draw
upon his imagination for specifica-
tions throughout the entire range of
theoretical possibilities.

Exhaust Steam Turbines

Taking advantage of the oppor-
tunity offered by the low pressure
steam turbine when used in connec-
tion with the exhaust of other prime
movers, for increasing plant output
without requiring additional boiler
capacity, the Baldwin Locomotive
Company is installing three 500 kilo-
watt low-pressure units at its Phila-
delphia works. These turbines will
utilize the exhaust steam from West-
inghouse compound reciprocating en-
gines already installed in the large
power plant of these shops, making
available a considerable additional
amount of power and effecting
marked economical improvement in
operation of this station.

The turbines practically make a
third stage in the expansion of the
steam from the compound engines —
a step forward in the economical use
of the steam.

The increasing shop demands on
the power house, following the re-
turn of the business tide, required
this additional power equipment, and
in making extensions along these
lines, sacrifice of the existing steam
generating apparatus, which is in
good condition, has been avoided.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

News Items

The catalogue of the new Rambler,
just issued by Thomas B. Jeffrey &
Co., contains, among other striking
illustrations, a beautiful color frontis-
piece of the new Rambler Fifty-five,
the leader of the Rambler line for
1910. The new Rambler is built in
one of the largest automobile fac-
tories in the world. Every part of
the car is made in this plant, which
has been in operation every single
working day for nearly ten years.
The new Ramblers are said to be
superior in point of quality to all
previous Ramblers, and now rank
among the highest - priced cars,
although the new 45 horse-power
Rambler sells for $2,500.

The Raymond Concrete Pile Com-
pany, of New York and Chicago, has
been awarded the contract for the
concrete piles and foundation of the
marine barracks at the League Island
Navy Yard, Philadelphia. Rankin,
Kellogg & Crane, architects ; P. J.
Hurley, general contractor.

The Proceedings of the Nineteenth
Annual Convention of the American
Railway Bridge and Building Asso-
ciation, held at Jacksonville, Fla.,
October, 1909, have been published.
The book contains committee reports
on electric transmission lines, bridge
inspection, water and coal supply,
turntables, derricks and push cars,
pile and frame trestle bridges, mate-
rial yards, docks, wharves, etc.

Frederick Maynard Mann, for the
past eight years professor of archi-
tecture at Washington University,
has been appointed professor of ar-
chitecture in charge of the depart-
ment at the University of Illinois.

Professor Mann prepared for col-
lege at the Minneapolis High School
and graduated from the university of
Minnesota, receiving the degree of
Bachelor of Civil Engineering in
1892. After graduating he entered
the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology, receiving the degree of

Bachelor of Science in Architecture
in 1894 and Master of Science in
Architecture in 1895. He received
the degree of Civil Engineer from
the University of Minnesota in 1898.
He traveled abroad for the study of
architecture during the summers of
1896 and 1897.

After leaving the institute Profes-
sor Mann was for several years in
professional practice with Peabody
and Stearns of Boston, with Cope
and Stewardson of Philadelphia and
later in independent practice for him-
self in the latter city. Among the
structures of his design may be
mentioned the Class of 1873 Memo-
rial Gateway at the University of
Pennsylvania, the Memorial Church
of St. Paul and the parish house for
the same, the Church of St. John the
Evangelist and the "Maryland"
bachelor apartments, all in Philadel-
phia or vicinity. His list of build-
ings also includes a number of im-
portant residences. Professor Mann
has also developed a general plan
for the grounds and buildings for
the University of Texas a'nd has de-
signed some of the buildings of that
institution. He acted as professional
adviser to the St. Louis Library
Board in connection with the city's
new central library building, in for-
mulating a programme upon the
basis of which Mr. Cass Gilbert was
appointed the architect. Professor
Mann was instructor in architecture at
the University of Pennsylvania from
1895 to 1900. Since 1902 he has
been Professor of Architecture at
Washington University, where he
has had an opportunity to originate
and to develop a department which
has attracted the favorable attention
of architects all over the country.

As the result of an experience cov-
ering nearly half a century, the
Joseph Dixon Crucible Company an-
nounces that a combination of silica-
graphite pigment and pure linseed oil
(the Dixon formula) will give a sur-
face protection excelled by no other
paint.

MANUFACTURING NEWS

The Speed of Riveting by Machinery

THE following interesting in-
formation as to the speed at
which rivets can be driven by
a compression riveter is furnished by
the Chester B. Albree Iron Works
of Allegheny, Pa., and coming from
the makers of one of the highly suc-
cessful machines of this type on the
market, it may be received as of ac-
knowledged authority.

In general, it may be said that as
a machine drives by one quick
squeeze, the time is not consumed
in driving the rivet, but in moving
from one rivet to the next.

Merely to show what has been
done under exceptional conditions,
we quote the astonishing record of
12,000 hot 24 -inch rivets driven in
ten hours.

The machine doing this was of
the portable type suspended from an
overhead runway, and the operator
had become most expert in swinging
it from rivet to rivet. The next best
record we know of is 10,000 rivets
in ten hours on similar work.

Ordinarily on boiler work, where
the rivet must be steam-tight and
well driven, 1,000 or 1,500 rivets
might be a good clay's work, while
on structural work, such as girders,
3,000, 4,000 or more are generally
driven, and on such irregular work
as trusses, probably 2,000 or 2,500.

The nature of the work is all-im-
portant, and these are only most
general figures, as each job has its
own peculiar conditions.

Speaking of the advantages of the
use of concrete in fireproof con-
struction, Mr. Frank B. Gilbreth says
that the only excuse for using wood
construction is its low cost : To-
day— here — now — we have an incom-
bustible material, a material at a less
cost than wood, that will stand high
temperatures for long periods with-
out injury. Wood must not be used.
We do not argue that no other non-
combustible shall be used and that
concrete shall be used exclusively, but
wood construction should be elim-
inated from all buildingf construction.

The Constitution of Matter

The article by Professor Robert
Kennedy Duncan upon the atom in
the June issue of Harper's Magazine
appeared just in time to enable the
announcement of the isolation of the
ion, by Professor Milliken, to be ac-
companied with the kind of an ex-
planation which permits the general
reader to obtain an idea of the lines
along which the modern investiga-
tions of the constitution of matter
are being conducted.

Professor Duncan examines the
relation of the atom to the general
theory of matter and explains the
work of Rutherford in measuring
the force of each ion, or electrical
atom, by the employment of the elec-
trometer. This important article is
hardly published before Professor
Milliken announces from Chicago
how, by the use of the air condenser,
the X-rays and radium, he has suc-
ceeded in isolating the ion, in meas-
uring its speed under the influence of
an electrical field and of rendering it
visible under the ultra-microscope.

The time is past when the utility
of such refined investigations can be
questioned, and every such study of
the constitution of matter is wel-
comed, not only for the addition
which is made to the sum of human
knowledge, but for the aid rendered
in guiding the men who are con-
ducting parallel work in applied sci-
ence. The development of modern
electrical machinery dates from the
researches of Faraday, researches of
which the practical application ap-
peared as remote as those of Ruther-
ford, Perrin and Milliken ; what the
actual results of the work of these
later investigators may be remains
to be seen.

In any case, it is a matter of in-
terest to perceive such researches oc-
cupying an important place in a
literary magazine, discussed by a
wholly competent scientist in lan-
guage intelligible to the layman, and
evidently attracting the interested at-
tention of readers to whom formerly
such a subject would have been hope-
less.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Book News

Producer Gas

American Producer Gas Practice and Industrial
Gas Engineering. By Nisbet Latta. Size
8 inches by 11 inches, pp. xviii, 539, 246 illus-
trations. New York: D. Van Nostrand Com-
pany. Price $6.

IT is excellent indication of the
growing importance of gas power
that such an extensive treatise
upon the subject of the production of
gas as a fuel, both for power and for
industrial operations, is demanded.
Mr. Latta has treated the question ex-
haustively, beginning with an ex-
amination of the conditions of gas-
producer operation, followed by a dis-
cussion of methods of cleaning the
gas, of the problems of moving gas
and of the physical and chemical prop-
erties of gases.

Chapters upon works details, upon
the various types of producers, upon
gas engines, furnaces, kilns and spe-
cial industrial applications, give the
work a highly practical character. The
important subjects of heat and its
properties, and of methods of measur-
ing heat, are given separate chapters,
while data upon materials and a num-
ber of reference tables close the
volume. A glossary of terms used in
the work and in general discussions of
gas engineering forms a useful addi-
tion to the work, which is very thor-
oughly illustrated and fully indexed.

In thus gathering together in one
volume the available information up
to date concerning industrial gas en-
gineering, Mr. Latta has made a valu-
able contribution to engineering litera-
ture and one which will doubtless do
much to extend the use of gaseous
fuel, both for power and for metal-
lurgical and other purposes. During
the past ten years the gas engine has
made amazing strides and units of sev-
eral thousand horse-power are com-
mercially built and extensively used.
The gas producer itself, however, has
progressed more slowly, partly be-
cause of lack of published data and
experience, a lack which is well sup-
plied by this treatise.

Mr. Latta especially disclaims any

attempt to recommend any particular
apparatus or process ; he describes
freely and fully processes, apparatus
and inventions protected by patent
or open to general public use, the
basic idea being to illustrate broadly
the respective types of apparatus and
appliances which are in successful
operation at the present time.

The wide extent of the gas in-
dustry renders it impracticable, in a
work even as voluminous as this, to
examine every appliance on the mar-
ket, and hence a selection has been
unavoidable, and this selection has
been made with a view of pre-
senting those which are typical of
the various classes and emphasize
the characteristics of each class most
effectively.

The book can be commended as
representing as fully as possible in a
single work the state of the art of in-
dustrial gas engineering at the pres-
ent time, leaving to specialized works
the discussion of details of construc-
tion and variants which are neces-
sarily included in the broad divisions
of the subject.

Electricity

Electrical Engineer's Pocket Book. A Hand-Book
of Useful Data for Electricians and Electrical
Engineers. By Horatio A. Foster, with the
collaboration of eminent specialists. Size
4x7 inches, pp. xxxvi, 1599. Numerous illus-
trations. New York: E>. Van Nostrand Com-
pany. Price $5.00.

The new fifth edition of Foster's
well-known electrical engineer's
pocket reference book comes as prac-
tically a new work, the various sec-
tions having been either completely
revised and brought up to date, or
else entirely rewritten.

The original plan of dividing the
subject into a number of sections,
and having each revised by an emi-
nent specialist in that particular field
has again been followed. Aside from
the easy accessibility thus afforded,"
this plan of construction is valuable
in proportion to the weightiness of
the authorities entrusted with the re-
vision of the several divisions.

MANUFACTURING NEWS

An examination of the list of
names in the present edition of
"Foster" reveals, among others, such
authorities as Prof. Samuel Sheldon,
Dr. Harold Pender, Mr. Wm.
Maver, Jr., Mr. Cecil P. Poole, Dr.
F. A. C. Perrine, Mr. Lamar Lyn-
don, Prof. F. B. Crocker, Mr. Max
Loewenthal, Mr. W. Wallace Chris-
tie, etc., so that the standard of au-
thority is well indicated.

Among the subjects treated in new-
sections may be mentioned tables of
inductance, capacity and impedance,
in the section on conductors ; while
the sections on street railways, pho-
tometry, conductors, lighting, Roent-
gen rays, etc., are examples of ex-
haustive though condensed treatment.

Especially worthy of comment, and
most important in a book of this
sort, is the very complete index, cov-
ering 67 pages in itself, while a very
full table of contents enables the
various sections to be found at once,
the two guides thus supplementing
each other very effectively.

The book is provided with a mar-
ginal thumb index, enabling it to be
opened immediately to any section,
so that every facility is provided for
rendering its contents available.

The pocket reference book has be-
come an essential in any department
of engineering, and the enormous
growth and activity of the electrical
industries has rendered a separate
book of this type an absolute neces-
sity. The professions of civil, me-
chanical and marine engineering have
long been provided with valuable
reference books, and. Mr. Foster and
his collaborators have done for elec-
trical engineering what has already
been accomplished for the older
branches of applied science. The
work has been well done, and the
book will doubtless meet with the
same general acceptance as has been
accorded to its predecessors in other
portions of the field of engineering.

These special contributors have
each dealt with the subject contained
in their own fields, thus giving the
book a value not possible with a sin-
gle author, however able.

Consoling Reflections

AS for the people who can
neither afford to have an au-
tomobile nor to go to Eu-
rope in the summer, it is a question,
of course, whether they are worth
discussing. There are a number of
them, but they are not much in it.
What do you suppose they do with
their poor lives ? Work, maybe !
Well, some one ought to work. We
need the money, and it doesn't grow
without cultivation.

Perhaps a few words of phi-
losophical condolence may nut come
amiss to those frienas who are de-
prived of both of the preferred rec-
reations of our people. Dear suf-
ferers, take courage, have hope.
There is something to be said for
your fate, rasping as it seems. Look
at Judge Taft. What a happy and
useful and respected man he was as
long as he had to scrape along on
the meagre salary that our country
awards to a Federal judge or a
Cabinet officer ! But since he got a
better job with an allowance for
travel and a salary large enough to
share with a chauffeur, how many
dolorous experiences have befallen
him, how many places he has been
to when he might have been more
profitably employed at home, how
many words he has spoken in places
far away from Washington that
were better unsaid !

After all, man cannot live by
transportation alone. Fault used to
be found with us Americans be-
cause we did not rest and play
enough.

The fault that nowadays we may
most aptly find with our restless
brethren is that they seek diver-
sion so urgently as to be in dan-
ger of missing the pith of life. The
value of diversion depends on what
you are diverted from. There is
more to be got out of life by ac-
ceptance of it than by avoidance of
it. In so far as travel and automo-
biles carry us deeper into life they
are useful, but in so far as they di-
vert us from fruitful living they do
us no good. — Harper's Weekly.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

THE LATEST CATALOGUES

In writing for Catalogues, please mention Cassier's Magazine

Gas Engines

Turner Fricke Manufacturing
Company, Sharon, Pa. Illustrated
description of the Turner-Fricke gas
engine, with data and results of tests
made at the fuel testing plant of the
United States Geological Survey at
the St. Louis Exposition, showing
the fuel consumption to be 40 per
cent, of that required for steam
power.

Wire Rope

American Steel & Wire Rope
Company, New York. Large cata-
logues of data and information for
users of wire rope, including new fig-
ures of breaking strength based upon
averages of different sizes and kinds
of rope from actual tests. Informa-
tion upon the value of lubrication of
wire rope is given and price lists and
data for hoisting, standing and trans-
mission rope are appended. A valu-
able publication for the engineer and
contractor.

Furnaces,

Rockwell - Furnace Company,
New York. Bulletin M, devoted to
the tilting crucible melting furnace
and its applications in the foundry
for melting aluminum, brass, copper,
cobalt, iron, manganese, etc., using
either oil or gas as fuel.

Pumps

American Steam Pump Com-
pany, Battle Creek, Mich. Illus-
trated catalogue of the Marsh steam
pump, with detailed tables for refer-
ence and instructions for setting up
and running the various types of
pumps. The advantages oi the Marsh
pump over the duplex type are set
forth, and special attention is di-
rected to the satisfactory performance
of the Marsh pump for feeding
boilers under low-pressure steam.

Motor Cur

General Electric Company,
Schenectady, N. Y. Illustrated de-
scription, Bulletin No. 4730, illus-
trating the use of the combination of
gas engine and electric motor for
operating street cars, motor trucks
and similar vehicles. This adaptation
of electric transmission with the com-
bustion motor enables cars to be
operated upon lines to which the
overhead or underground conductor
is not applicable, or for pioneer work
in extensions and development. De-
tails of construction and illustrations
of parts render the construction clear.

TrucK

American Locomotive Company,
New York, N. Y. Bulletin No. 1003,
devoted to the radial trailing truck
with outside bearings, showing the
advantages of accessibility for lubri-
cation, examination, renewal of pack-
ing and repairs afforded by this de-
sign. The superior riding qualities
of the truck are set forth and its
satisfactory performance in operation
and maintenance.

Conveying Machinery

Jeffrey Manufacturing Com-
pany, Columbus, Ohio. Booklet No.
38, illustrating the general character
and wide range of the products of
the manufacturers. Attention is
called especially to the fact that spe-
cial catalogues are issued describing
the various lines of these products,
including storage battery and other
industrial locomotives, Jeffrey wire
cable conveyors, wire cable hauls,
Jeffrey drop-rail mine cages, coal
tipples and screens, coal washeries,
revolving screens, centrifugal mine
fans, crushing and pulverizing ma-
chinery, conveyors for lumber and
pulp mills and rubber belt conveyors.
Any of these catalogues will be
mailed upon request.

MANUFACTURING NEWS

Feed-Water Heaters

The Blake & Knowles Steam
Pump Works, New York. Bulletin
B. K. 843, describing the advantages
of the open type of feed water heater,
with exterior and sectional views,
specifications and information neces-
sary in determining the proper ap-
paratus for a given service.

Electric Power

Triumph Electric Company, Cin-
cinnati, Ohio. Electricity in a Mod-
ern Bakery. An interesting descrip-
tion of the application of the Triumph
electric motor for operating ma-
chinery in the bakery, showing the
convenience, cleanliness and economy
of electric power for this service.
The motors are used for all details of
the work, including coring, peeling,
slicing, chopping, egg-beating, dish
washing, etc., with a marked reduc-
tion in the number of employees re-
quired and consequent reduction in
expense.

Electric Power

Crocker-Wheeler Company, Am-
pere, N. J. Three bulletins devoted
to the products of the manufacturers ;
Bulletin 119 illustrates the large en-
gine type of direct-current electric
generators, showing their economy,
simplicity and ease of control ; Bul-
letin 121 sets forth the advantages
and efficiency of the small engine
type of direct-current generators for
hotels, department stores and office
buildings ; Bulletin 124 is devoted to
exhaust fans, discussing the impor-
tance of reliability in continuous and
efficient operation, especially as re-
gards commutator troubles.

Featherweight Engines

Elbridge Engine Company, Roch-
ester, N. Y. The folder published by
this firm deals with light gasoline en-
gines built especially for aeronautical
work. The experience gained in
building marine engines has been suc-
cessfully used and modified in the
construction of aeronautical machines.

Bolt Machinery

Acme Machinery Company,
Cleveland, Ohio. Catalogue for
1910 calling attention to the special
points of excellence of the Acme
bolt and nut machinery. The dur-
ability, simplicity and strength of the
Acme die head are emphasized, while
the methods of manufacture, includ-
ing the employment of standard
gauges, assurance of interchange-
ability, high grade of material, etc.,
are also set forth.

Valves

Walworth Manufacturing Com-
pany, Boston, Mass. Booklet illus-
trating and describing all kinds of
supplies for use with steam, water
and gas. The importance of high
qualities in such details and the false
economy in purchasing cheap valves
and fittings are discussed, and price
lists of the Walworth products are
given.

Air BraKes

National Brake and Electric
Company, Milwaukee. Bulletin No.
389, devoted to the three types of
emergency brakes made by the manu-
facturers, showing how the straight
air brake is operated with the emer-
gency valve unchanged, and how the
latter valve comes into action when
needed. The details of construction
are shown in numerous diagrams and
the method of releasing the brakes
is described.

Separators

Power Plant Specialty Com-
pany, Chicago, 111. Catalogue of the
Vater two-stage separator for remov-
ing entrained water from steam. It
is claimed for this device that it will
remove water or oil from steam
which has already passed through
separators of other types, while a re-
versal of the operation will show that
the Vater apparatus has already
done the work.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

The Value of Silence

WE have referred elsewhere in
this issue to the various
methods of increasing effi-
ciency by avoiding the consumption
of energy in the production of use-
less or undesirable effects, and called
attention to the cost of the produc-
tion of noise. This is a point which
cannot be emphasized too strongly,
and it is gratifying to observe that in
modern installations of machinery of
types which formerly were considered
necessarily noisy the value of noise-
lessness is taken into account.

Probably the handling of coal,
broken stone, ashes, cinders and simi-
lar substances is an operation asso-
ciated in the minds of nearly every-
one with the concomitants of noise
and dirt. This is doubtless because
of the recollection of the days when
such handling was really performed
by hand, and when such materials
were moved about by muscular effort,
using the ordinary shovel as the prin-
cipal tool.

The proportion of waste energy to
useful effort in the act of shoveling a
broken material, such as coal, for in-
stance, is large. The material is
taken up with difficulty and thrown
some distance, producing noise, and
being partly broken up and disin-
tegrated, with the formation of con-
siderable dust and consequent im-
pairment of its value. These effects
are wholly undesirable in themselves,
and account for a large proportion of
the wasted power.

The production of dirt is in itself
injurious, both to the structure in
which the work is done and in the
surroundings, and it also acts to lower
the efficiency of the men themselves ;
no man can do his best work in the
midst of grime and grit. There is
thus a lowering in efficiency in the
original production of the effort and
a further loss in its subsequent ap-
plication. If cleanliness and quiet
can be substituted for dirt and noise,
there should be a marked increase in
the efficiency of the operation; and if,
to these advantages, the effort of hu-

man muscle may be replaced by the
highly efficient electric motor, there
should appear a still further improve-
ment in the efficiency of the entire
operation.

That there is such an advantage in
the substitution of modern handling
machinery for human labour is evi-
dent by the extent to which such ma-
chinery has replaced men in the great
proportion of the large power plants
for the handling of coal and the re-
moval of ashes.

Anyone who goes into such a power
plant will observe the comparatively
small number of men employed, and
yet he knows that a very large quan-
tity of coal is being consumed and
converted into power. That this coal
must be got into the building some-
how and fed under the boilers, is un-
derstood, and it is also realized that
the ashes must be removed continu-
ously. If the coal were dumped into
bins in a manner similar to that vised
for household deliveries of fuel, the
noise would be almost deafening; but
no such disturbance of the air is ap-
parent. Upon investigation, however,
the visitor finds that there is a con-
tinuous flow of coal from the barges
or cars by which it is delivered to
the storage bins above, and from the
bins to the mechanical stokers in the
furnaces, and that all this work is be-
ing performed with so little noise and
with such an absence of dust that he
has to look about him to find out just
how it is done. In like manner, the
non-combustible portion, in the form
of ash, is removed in such a quiet and
cleanly manner that it is hardly ap-
parent, either as to method or loca-
tion.

That such a system is necessarily
far more efficient than the old-time
noisy, dirty, wasteful combination of
laboring gang and shovels is apparent
in itself; that it has been actually
demonstrated to be so, is evident by
the extent to which the machine has
replaced the man, not only in the
power house, but also in the iron
works, the steel mill, and the manu-
facturing: establishment.

Hunt

Noiseless Bucket

Conveyor

For

handling
dry

materials
or liquids

Noiseless

operation

Costs less

for

maintenance

power

and

operation

than any

other

Conveyor

111

Note the action of the bucket,
always maintains an upright position
in whichever direction it is travelling
and dumps at any point desired.

Hunt Conveyors Handling Coal and Ashes.
Morgan & Wright Co., Detroit, Mich.

Handles

Coal

Ashes

Ore

Phosphates

Sand

Gravel

etc.

Hoisting Towers Cable Railways

Automatic Railways

Steam Shovels "Industrial" Railways

Electric Storage Battery Locomotives

C. W. HUNT COMPANY

No. 45 BROADWAY
NEW YORK

Established 1872

Works : West New Brighton, S. 1.
NEW YORK

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Unity in Power-Plant Design

I T has been said of the old-time ma-
I chine shop that it was not
* planned beforehand, but that it
"grew," and that it generally grew
along lines which were not those of
greatest efficiency, but those of least
resistance. That is, an establishment
with small beginnings developed as
the business was prospered, by the
erection of additional buildings on the
most convenient adjacent ground, and
power was either sent by shafting,
belting or rope from the old engine
room, or else another engine was in-
stalled in the new buildings. When,
later on, further extensions became
necessary, they were placed where the
ground could be acquired, and the
operation repeated until the entire
plant resembled a sort of village, or
aggregation of structures, by no
means such as would have been
erected had the whole establishment
been planned from the beginning.

In like manner, the question of the
distribution of the power through
such a works was effected in the
manner most convenient at the time,
and hence by no means according to
methods which would have been em-
ployed if a general scheme had been
planned out in advance.

Often the above procedure was the
best which could be used under the
conditions, and the use of a prede-
termined layout for the final result
would have been impracticable. At
the present time, however, the con-
struction of great manufacturing es-
tablishments from the start has be-
come a distinct branch of engineering
work, and the result is the design of
the entire establishment, as complete
in detail as is the case with a great
ocean steamer or a metropolitan sky-
scraper.

In no department of such a plan is
more attention demanded than in the
design of the power-transmission sys-
tem. Next to the generation of the
power, to the boilers, engines, and
details of the power house, comes the
delivery of the power from the centre
where it is generated to the extremi-

ties where it is utilized. A consider-
able portion of the power must neces-
sarily be consumed in the journey
from the engine to the tool; how
much is thus absorbed depends very
largely upon the manner in which the
transmission is planned, how well it
is adapted to the special conditions
which exist, and how accurately the
plans of the experienced engineer are
executed in the construction.

In the consideration of the generat-
ing portion of the power plant the
greatest care is taken to secure co-
ordination of the various elements.
The amount of power to be used is
carefully determined, as well as the
quantity of steam demanded for other
purposes. The boiler capacity and
the dimensions of the engine are thus
intelligently settled, and in like man-
ner the system of piping, water sup-
ply and other essentials are worked
out. The modern manufacturer of
power-transmission equipment fol-
lows out similar methods. The situa-
tion of the various parts of the plant
are studied to determine whether
shafting, belting or rope-drive is to
be recommended. The amount of
power demanded in the several opera-
tions is estimated, and has an impor-
tant influence upon the choice of
methods and dimensions, and when
the whole has been laid out it is con-
structed in the light of long expe-
rience, and then assembled, tested,
and its completeness assured before
it is finally erected in position for
service.

It is evident that such a procedure
must result in the attainment of a far
greater degree of efficiency than is
possible in any hap-hazard growth,
building up department by depart-
ment, often with no other guide than
the rule-of-thumb, and frequently
with no adequate determination of
the actual requirements of the situa-
tion. The modern method is both
efficient in itself and makes for
higher efficiency of the men by whom
it is operated, and it marks one of
the forward steps in mechanical evo-
lution.

The Factory Power Transmission System Should
be a Complete Unit — Properly Designed and Tested

Outfit of Shafting, Dodge Friction Clutches, Bearings and Pulleys under running test on our assembling floor

NO satisfactory service would be expected from an engine if the frame were
bought here, the cylinder there, the piston and other parts picked up else-
where, and assembled on the ground.

<J And the outfit which transmits, is as important as the engine that generates
the power.

<I Complete equipments of Dodge Transmission Machinery represent the
greatest possible efficiency. Our engineers design Dodge outfits for the par-
ticular service which they are to perform.

C| And, in addition, every special equipment is assembled and put under a
running test in our shops. No less a try-out will demonstrate the absolute
accuracy of all the parts of the outfit.

^ Please consider what this kind of tested, established efficiency means in
economy of quick erection — how it eliminates friction loss in operation and
reduces the expense of renewals and attendance.

1$ If you contemplate the installation of power transmission machinery, or if your present power
distribution system is uneconomical, write us. We can help you secure efficiency.

<I Send for our new complete general catalog CC-10, "Power Transmission Engineering" and
other information on this subject.

DODGE MANUFACTURING COMPANY

STATION F-ll, MISHAWAKA, INDIANA

New York Chicago Philadelphia Minneapolis Atlanta

Pittsburg Boston Cincinnati Brooklyn . St. Louis

Agencies in the Other Principal Cities of the Country

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

The Cost of Noise

NOTHING which demands the
consumption of energy for its
production can be had with-
out cost; noise must be paid for in
hard cash without the satisfaction of
receiving any useful return ; it is a
sort of frictional resistance, consum-
ing power for its production and at
the same time impeding the effi-
ciency of everything with which it is
associated.

Under such circumstances, it is
surprising that the attention of the
engineer has not long ago been di-
rected toward the desirability of pro-
ducing machinery which should
waste the minimum of power in the
emission of wasteful noises, and thus
leave a larger proportion of energy
available for useful work.

Attention seems to have been
turned toward this phase of the
problem of machine design in a
somewhat indirect manner. The
noisy machines have been found to
be inefficient and those which are
smooth and silent in their action have
been demonstrated to be efficient in
their conversion of power. The car
which goes bumping over irregu-
larities in the track, disturbing every
one about it in its progress through
the shop, naturally requires more ef-
fort to move it along than is de-
manded by the chain block, which,
suspended from its overhead tram-
rail, is moved quickly and silently
from one end of the shop to the
other.

Formerly heated metal was pounded
into shape with much noise and
clamor in the smith shop, using the
repeated blows of many hammers,
which approximated pandemonium in
the multitude of sounds indicating
the useless consumption of power.
To-day the silent hydraulic forging
press shapes the metal with a noise-
less squeeze, in which the quality of
the product is benefited by the ab-
sence of impact effects and the pres-
ence of concentrated, steadily applied
energy. In like manner the pressure
riveting machine has, in many in-

stances, replaced the noisy blows of
the hammer, and in numerous simi-
lar cases the suppression of noise
might be associated with the improve-
ment in the resulting product.

The waste of energy appears in
many mechanical operations as a re-
sult of primitive methods of doing
things which have not been ade-
quately studied, but, instead, have
been inherited, from earlier practices.

The smith makes many useless
blows upon the anvil, and the brick-
layer waves his trowel in the air, and
includes various gesticulations in con-
nection with the really effective
movements of his work. These may
not be accompanied with the produc-
tion of noise, but they involve waste
of energy none the less, and proper
training would enable many such
useless motions to be replaced with
others of valuable effect.

In the case of the chain block, the
efficient machine is that which per-
mits the operator to assume the most
effective position, to make the fewest
unnecessary movements and to ex-
pend the minimum amount of ef-
fort in overcoming frictional resist-
ances. When the burden is lifted, it
may be conveyed through the air in
silence at an expenditure of a trifle
of the power required to drag it
along the surface of the ground,
while the effort involved in lowering
the load to the required position is
again a minimum. By thus making a
thoroughfare in the air, all obstacles
are overcome, the resistances are
kept at the lowest point and the pro-
duction of noise is entirely avoided.

Apart from the advantages thus
obtained in the actual handling of
parts during the operations of ma-
chining, the use of the silent over-
head means of transport enters into
the accomplishment of important
economies in the assembling of the
elements into the finished product,
cutting down the time and thus re-
ducing the proportion of fixed
charges, besides greatly reducing the
wear and tear upon the building, and
acting broadly to minimize wastes.

One Man Does It All !

PUNCHING holes in
a girder is easy — the
real work is in getting
the girder to the punch —
adjusting it for the opera-
tions and carrying it away.
One man with a Triplex
Block suspended from a
trolley, does the whole
thing. He picks up a gird-
er by pulling on the hand
chain — carries it to the
punch by pushing it along
the trolley — which also
enables him to adjust it
quickly and with absolute
accuracy.

He can then move the
girder to any other point
in the works or deliver it
on board the car for ship-
ment.

The whole installation

A Triplex Block serving a punch

is inexpensive and pays for itself over and over again, because
the initial saving of a Triplex Block keeps on for a lifetime.
Tou may have one to try by just asking us or your
nearest dealer.

Chain
Blocks

4 Styles : Differential, Duplex, Triplex, Electric.

42 sizes : One-eighth of a ton to forty tons.

300 Active Stocks ready for instant call all over the U. S.

Send for the Book of Hoists today — Yours for a Postcard

The Yale & Towne Mfg. Company

Only Makers of Genuine Yale Products

9 Murray Street - New York

Local Offices : Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston, San Francisco

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Mailing the Wheels Go Around

ANY years ago the genial
author, Dr. Oliver Wendell
Holmes, contributed to the
Atlantic Monthly an article entitled
"The Human Wheel, Its Spokes and
Felloes," in which he discussed in
his inimitable manner the resem-
blance of the human leg and foot,
in the operation of walking, to the
rolling of a wheel along the ground.
The human wheel was at no time
a complete circle, but the alternate
movement of the legs provided spokes
for support, and the rolling action
of the foot furnished a portion of the
rim always upon the ground. With
the exception of this analogy there
appears to be no example of a nat-
ural wheel from which our ancestors
could have derived the conception,
and it seems as if, in some remote
period, there must have been an in-
ventor of truly originating genius
who produced the first wheel.

Once produced, the wheel has met
with an infinite number of applica-
tions in the arts, applications the lack
of which would almost throw us back
into barbarism. We do not attempt
to make vehicles in imitation of
animal locomotion ; we put them
upon wheels and cause them to roll
smoothly upon roads or rails. We
do not even try to apply the recip-
rocating motion of the steam engine
to the direct performance of mechan-
ism, except in such isolated examples
as the steam hammer and the like,
but set it to work making a wheel
go around and then pass this rotating
movement on and on and on to other
wheels, until the actual point of con-
version of energy is reached. Even
then we endeavor to perform the
work itself by rotary motion if
possible, and do as much as we can
with the lathe, the boring mill, the
drill and the milling machine.

Under such circumstances it is
apparent that the production of
power-transmitting machinery neces-
sarily involves the design and manu-
facture of wheels of all kinds, wheels
for belts, for rope, for speed regu-

lation and for combined applications.

Formerly the making of a pulley
or a fly-wheel was a rather compli-
cated operation, and much care and
labour had to be expended upon a
pattern for each particular case,
labour which usually had to be done
over again for the next job. To-
day the manufacturer of transmis-
sion machinery carries a line of pat-
terns and parts, or is provided with
special molding machinery which
enables him to manufacture rather
than to make, and the product is
superior to that which cost so much
more. When the function of a
wheel is to pass along the force
which is in motion about its rapidly
speeding rim, it has been found de-
sirable to keep the weight down,
to increase the tractive friction of
belt or rope, and to facilitate placing
it in position; in other words, the
split pulley of wood, or with wooden
rim appeared and has persisted.

When speed regulation was the
object of the wheel, it became a fly-
wheel, and the weight of the revolv-
ing rim, the inertia of which was to
oppose fluctuations in impulse or in
resistance, became the important ele-
ment, until engineers found that the
resistance of centrifugal stresses at
the increasing speeds demanded the
critical attention of the skilled en-
gineer. The design and construction
of fly-wheels thus entered into the
domain of the manufacturer of
transmission machinery.

The greater includes the lesser,
and the wheels of mechanism re-
quire shafting for support and for
extension of movement, besides bear-
ings, supports, clutches and coup-
lings. The velocity of the rim of
the pulley has to be passed on from
wheel to wheel, and the flying belt of
leather or rubber or the multiple
coils of manila rope are used, and
thus the task of making the wheels
go around occupies the highest ef-
forts of the able engineer, the skilled
mechanic and the commercial ad-
ministrator in the conduct of the work
of the world.

\\7"E design, furnish and install complete power trans-
mission equipments for all lines of industry.
^ Heavy equipments are a specialty with us, such as roll-
ing mill, cement mill and rubber mill outfits.
€J We manufacture belt and rope wheels up to 24 feet in
diameter, and have a special line of patterns for big pil-
low blocks, bearings, couplings, friction clutches and
rope drive equipments.

1§ Our engineering department is ready to advise with ^
you at any time — write us about your power trans- f^y

mission requirements.

Our Booklet 1-123 "Safe Construction and Speeds of +.

Flywheels" contains interesting information on this
subject. Your name on the coupon brings it.

Dodge Manufacturing Co. V^

fr"

<$?<?■

STATION H-ll MISHAWAKA, INDIANA

New York Philadelphia Chicago Atlanta ^.^■c-
St. Louis Pittsburg Cincinnati f<4-

Minneapolis Boston Brooklyn . O

Agencies in other cities throughout the world W "9

^ <? 0° ^P ^ q? t° <sj?

'**

>&\

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6l

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Stone Quarrying to Specification

IN comparing the rate of production
of a modern manufacturing estab-
lishment in almost any line of activ-
ity with that of one of the shops of
the olden time, with its obsolete means
and methods, the comparison always
being of course for the magnification
of the former, we are apt to omit some
of the essential particulars, the omis-
sion leading us to unwarranted con-
clusions. A locomotive works, for
instance, for a given force employed,
will now turn out many times the
number and value of engines which
would have been possible half a cen-
tury ago. Upon investigation it will
soon appear that all the improvements
in machine efficiencies and in the de-
tails of shop manipulation do not
nearly account for the vast increase
in output. Every shop in these clays
not only has its own force busily •em-
ployed, but it also has many hands in
many factories variously situated pro-
ducing the minor details of the as-
sembled machines which it turns out.
Besides the enumerated force of work-
men in the shop itself, there are prob-
ably many more than that number in
other shops who are preparing ma-
terial and manufacturing the numer-
ous "supplies" which the shop requires
and uses to complete its work.

This same distributing and special-
izing of activities, while concentrating
their results, applies in larger enter-
prises than those of the shops. The
greatest of all industries is the build-
ing of cities, and none, perhaps, has
had a greater transformation. The
modern building methods are most
rapid and prolific, because here the
practice is now similar to that of the
shops. The building of New York,
for instance, is going on, not in New
York alone, but in various places
throughout the land. Practically all
the vast structures which we are con-
tinually piling up higher and higher
are really manufactured elsewhere,
Manhattan witnessing onlv the final
assembling of the parts. Most of the
building of the sky-scraper is clone
£t the steel works, and at the stone

quarry, and the several pieces, whether
of steel or of stone, come already
fitted and marked and numbered, to
show how they go together.

In machine work, and all through
the metal industries, the automatic
screw machine, which, as we all know,
turns out a vast variety of small ma-
chine parts besides screws, is per-
haps the greatest individual helper,
and in stone work the channeler finds
equally wide employment and accom-
plishment no less prolific.

The channeler emphasizes perhaps
more completely than any other device
the difference between ancient and
modern practice in stone work. The
channeler is not as yet capable of
working some of the harder stones,
but in the vast field which it does
cover it represents the cutting of
stone to precise dimensions.

We are quite in the habit of saying
that Egyptian architecture called for
massive blocks of stone, but the simple
fact is that the method of quarrying
produced big stones and the architect
was compelled to adapt his designs to
the material as it came to him. The
quarries of Egypt even to-day ,tell
clearly the story of the splitting off of
the stones by the cutting of rows of
holes of no great depth and the swell-
ing force of the wooden blocks which
tightly filled them. It is often said
that we could not now get out and
transport the stone masses of ancient
Egypt. It simply would not pay and
would not be worth while for us.

If we could not reproduce the tem-
ples of Thebes, still less could the
builders of Thebes have produced the
Metropolitan Life Building of New
York, the largest marble structure in
the world, and the most complete em-
bodiment of the work of the chan-
neler. After the Tuckahoe marble
was decided upon for the material,
the quarry could in no other particu-
lar dictate to the architect. The
blocks in shape, dimension and detail
of decoration were determined in the
office, and the drills and channelers
and pneumatic tools produced them
precisely as ordered.

INGERSOLL-RAND CO.

NEW YORK CHICAGO

Stone
Channelers

Large cutting capacity, economy of
power, and the ability to stand rough
service and exposure, characterize
the Ingersoll-Rand line of Stone
Channelers.

These valuable qualities are the result of
a vast experience in the manufacture
of percussive machinery for rock ex-
cavation, which has evolved methods
of construction, types of design, and
special treatment of materials equal
to the most severe duty.

The "Monitor" Track Channeler for the heaviest work — the "Ram" Chan-
neler for marble quarrying — the " Electric-Air " for electrically equipped
properties — the " HF " Undercutter and the " Broncho " Bar Channeler —
these comprise a line unequalled in versatility, economy and staying power.

All of these machines are designed and built with a view to their permanent
earning power, rather than for spasmodic record-breaking performance.

In stone quarrying, and in certain classes of contract work, the very best
results may be expected from a suitable channeler selected from this line.

Products :
AIR COMPRESSORS
ROCK DRILLS
HAMMER DRILLS
ELECTRIC-AIR DRILLS
CORE DRILLS
COAL CUTTERS
CHANNELERS
PNEUMATIC TOOLS
PNEUMATIC HOISTS
PNEUMATIC PUMPS

DOMESTIC

OFFICES:

Birmingham

Boston

Butte

Chicago

Cleveland

Denver

Duluth

El Paso
Philadelphia
Pittsburg
St. Louis
Salt Lake
San Francisco
Seattle

FOREIGN

OFFICES :

Budapest

Dusseldorf

Johannesburg

Kobe

Melbourne

Mexico

Montreal

Paris

Valparaiso

Yokohama

In writing *• •dvcrtiten, plekie mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE-

CASSIER'S MAQAZINE

Steel Window .Frames

THE effort to eliminate the im-
mense waste of property and
value due to fire losses has led
to the development of fireproof con-
struction, an effort which has been im-
mensely aided by the increasing use of
concrete, both plain and reinforced, in
building construction.

The constructing engineer, in his
search for fire-proof materials, had
been led to abandon certain natural
stones, which either crack and break
under the action of heat, or are so
materially reduced in strength as to
render their continued use a matter
of uncertainty. He has also found
that the true fire-proof materials are
those which have already been
through the fire, and have conse-
quently been tested and have devel-
oped the resistance to heat which is
absolutely essential. Thus brick,
cement, cinder, etc., together with
certain other materials such as sand,
certain kinds of stone, and, in gen-
eral, the materials of concrete, are
available within their structural lim-
itations.

When the use of reinforcement of
steel, imbedded within the concrete
structure, was found to give the
necessary tensile resistance, the field
for genuine fire-proof construction
was opened. The steel necessary for
strength could be so protected from
heat as to remove its former weak-
ness under the action of fire, while
the wide applicability of concrete
made it possible to abandon the use
of combustible wood almost entirely.

The one detail in building con-
struction for which wood retained
its usefulness for some time appeared
in the construction of window fram-
ing and sash. Concrete was here in-
applicable, while the earlier attempts
at the production of steel sash re-
sulted in forms by no means so desir-
able as the wooden ones then in use.

A steel sash must be as light in
weight as is consistent with strength,
and it must offer the minimum ob-
struction to the passage of light. It
must be stiff enough to resist the

pressure of heavy wind and strong
enough to carry the weight of heavy
glass. With these fundamental re-
quirements come also those of tight-
ness against weather and provision
for ventilation.

To meet these conditions means
that the sash must be manufactured
according to mechanical principles,
using rolled sections specially de-
signed for the purpose to insure
lightness, strength and proper meth-
ods of junction. It involves stand-
ardization of sizes, forms and con-
struction, to meet the requirements
of the architect, owner and builder,
and to permit the use of proper sizes
of glass. In short, it takes the man-
ufacture of the sash out of the scope
of the woodworking mill, and com-
pels the organization of a metallic
sash manufacturing industry.

Such a development completes the
possibility of the fire-proof building
and removes the last reason for the
employment of any combustible ma-
terial.

It also removes what has repeat-
edly been shown to be a serious men-
ace to a building from without. It
is of small avail for one owner to
be careful in using fire-proof con-
struction if the fire in his neigh-
bor's property can enter through
his windows and work internal dam-
age to the building in which the fire
could not have originated.

There are numerous examples of
fire loss of just this kind, losses
against which no amount of care
could provide so long as combustible
window frames left the vulnerable
point for the external fire to work
its harm. The careless or unwilling
neighbor constitutes an enemy, so far
as fire risk is concerned, against
which the steel sash and window
frame forms a defense, and with
such protection safety is assured.

Thus the steel sash and window
frame becomes the final element in the
completion of the modern fire-proof
building and enables what has
hitherto been the weak point as ef-
fective as other parts of the structure.

Ipauufactaiti0 |pxDs

The History of the RocK Drill

BY W. L. SAUNDERS

THE rock drill is an American in-
vention, conceived and devel-
oped in the United States. J. J.
Couch, of Philadelphia, took out the
first practical patents in 1849. In his
experiments he was assisted by Jos.
W. Fowle. The Couch drill was a
crank-and-flywheel machine.

Couch and Fowle separated in 1848,
the latter filing a caveat in 1849 cov~
ering a drill of his own invention and
describing the successful power rock
drill substantially as it is to-day. The
most important feature of Fowle's
drill is that the cutting tool was at-
tached directly to the piston. In other
words, the steel leading into the hole
was an extension of the piston rod.

Fowle described this invention in
his testimony before the Massachu-
setts Legislative Committee in his con-
test with Burleigh in 1874, as follows:

"My first idea of ever driving a
rock drill by direct action came about
in this way : I was sitting in my office
one day after my business had failed
and happening to take up an old steam
cylinder, I unconsciously put it in my
mouth and blew the rod in and out,
using it to drive in some tacks with
which a few circulars were fastened
to the walls."

In Europe, the nearest approach to
rock drill invention was the work of
the German, Schumann, carried on in
1854. Fowle being without means to
develop his ideas, they remained in
obscurity until Charles Burleigh pur-
chased his patents and produced the
Burleigh drill, about 1866. This drill
was used in 1867 in driving the
Hoosac tunnel in Massachusetts.

Following Couch, Fowle and Bur-
leigh, came Haupt, Wood, Ingersoll,
Sergeant, Waring and Githens. Gith-
ens was the inventor of the Rand drill..

The Ingersoll drill was invented in
1 87 1. Simon Ingersoll, a modest, in-
genious and honest mechanic, came to<
New York from Connecticut, bringing
with him the models of several inven-
tions. He was riding in a New York
horse car one day and was describing
one of his inventions to a fellow pas-
senger. Another passenger in the car
was John D. Miner, who overheard
Ingersoll's conversation. Miner was
a contractor, engaged with a gang of
men on some rock excavation in New
York City.

Miner broke into the conversation
to ask Ingersoll why he didn't invent
a rock drill, telling him that he had a
gang of men at work striking a steel
with a hammer to make a hole for
blasting; that they could put in only

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

about ten feet of hole per day, and that
he did not see why a machine could
not be built that would do the work.

Ingersoll said he could make such a
machine and would go at it at once if
he had the money. Miner gave him
fifty dollars and his card, saying that
though he had never seen Ingersoll
he fore, he had an honest face and he
would trust him to spend that fifty dol-
lars in building a rock drill. "When
you want any more," said Miner,
"come to me and I'll give you another
fifty."

Ingersoll's first rock drill was built
in a shop at Second avenue and
Twenty-second street, New York
City, owned by J. F. de Navarro, and
was managed by Sergeant and Cull-
ingworth.

One day Henry C. Sergeant saw the
patterns for Ingersoll's drill. He no-
ticed that the front head was attached
to, and was a part of,, the cylinder. He
told the workmen that they should be
in two pieces, and proceeded to saw
off the pattern. At this point Inger-
soll came into the shop. "What are
you doing?" he asked. "I'm making
this thing practical," said Sergeant, as
he finished cutting off the pattern be-
fore Ingersoll could stop him. The
result was the first row between In-
gersoll and Sergeant and it led later
to Mr. Navarro purchasing, on Ser-
geant's advice, all rights and patents
held by Ingersoll. The Ingersoll drill
was made with the separate front head
as used to-day.

Mr. Navarro organized the Inger-
soll Rock Drill Company, investing
$10,000 in the concern. Litigation
arose with Burleigh, of Massachu-
setts, who owned the rights of Fowle
and others. However, Mr. Navarro's
plentiful supply of funds and his lib-
eral nature brought about a settlement
of the suits, and all the patents be-
came the property of the Ingersoll
Rock Drill Company.

The business quickly paid back to
Mr. Navarro the $10,000 he had put
into it, and in later years he sold his
interests to Mr. R. W. Chapin for
$525,000. Sergeant sold out because

of friction with the management, went
West, engaged in mining, returned to
New York about 1885, and organized
the Sergeant Drill Company.

Early in rock drill developments the
Rand brothers, Addison C. and Jasper
R., had become interested through
their connection with the Laflin and
Rand Powder Company. Addison C.
Rand formed the Rand & Waring
Drill and Compressor Company, later
controlled exclusively by Rand and
merged with the Rand Drill Company,
established in 1871 and incorporated
in 1879.

J. C. Githens, superintendent of the
Rand Drill Company, invented the
"Little Giant" rock drill. He was
the originator also of many improve-
ments, notably the double-screw col-
umn with column arms, which made
practical the application of the rock
drill to mining and tunneling.

The Sergeant & Cullingworth Com-
pany manufacturing the Ingersoll
drill, the Sergeant Drill Company, and
the Ingersoll Rock Drill Company,
were merged into the Ingersoll-Ser-
geant Drill Company. Later on the
Rand Drill Company and the Inger-
soll-Sergeant Drill Company were
consolidated in the Ingersoll-Rand
Company, to-day carrying on the busi-
ness of all these pioneer concerns. The
Rand drill from the beginning had
been the most formidable competitor
of the Ingersoll and Sergeant types.
The conjunction of the Ingersoll-Ser-
geant and Rand companies, therefore,
was a combination of valuable patents
in rock drills, compressors and gen-
eral machinery for mining, tunneling
and quarrying. Each shop received
the benefit of the experience of all the
others, and the best features of the
Ingersoll, Sergeant and Rand types
were taken to make an improved
product.

The present company, capitalized at
$10,000,000, sells its product through-
out the world. Its machines are the
recognized standards in their line, and
its constant endeavor is to maintain
its standards up to, or even in advance
of, the times.

MANUFACTURING NEWS

APPLICATION OF MICROMETER GAUGE TO RAMBLER BEVEL GEAR TO DETERMINE ITS ACCURACY.

Manufacturing Methods in the Ram-
bler Automobile WorKs

THE Superintendents and Fore-
man's Club of Chicago, an
organization of eighty - five
members, composed of the managers
of the greatest mechanical plants in
the Middle West, all experts in ad-
vanced mechanics, recently visited the
plant of Thomas B. Jeffery & Co., at
Kenosha, to study the system of ad-
vanced physical and chemical tests
employed in determining the quality
and efficiency of Rambler parts and
tp watch those methods by which
standardization of parts has been at-
tained through extreme accuracy in
workmanship and the rigid inspection
system which the Rambler people
maintain.

These experts followed the produc-
tion of the Rambler from the drop-
forge shop, where a battery of steam
forges make every drop-forging, from
the smallest valve stem to the largest
crankshaft, to the body finishing and
inspection department, where every
Rambler body is made complete and
finished in the most minute detail.

A special study was made of the

methods employed in standardizing
Rambler parts and making all inter-
changeable through careful grinding
and finishing processes, assuring ab-
solute accuracy. They observed the
processes for treating and hardening
metals for all important parts, such
as gears, and inspected the Rambler
laboratory, where infinite labour is
expended over uniform horse-power
formulae, chemical tests of materials
and torsion tests of all parts which
are subject to strains.

Quality in an automobile and the
final satisfaction to be obtained from
its use depends not only upon the
quality of the materials entering into
it, and upon the design, but, more
than anything else, upon the accuracy
with which the parts are made and
fitted. Such accuracy is the product
of skilled as opposed to unskilled
workmanship.

In the effort to improve the silent
and smooth-running qualities of tht
car, manufacturers are constantly
striving to lessen friction wherever
friction is possible.

In these factories where standard
cars are made, particularly in the

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

EXPERT WORK IN GAUGING RAMBLER PARTS
FOR ACCURACY.

new Rambler factory, special equip-
ment is used and experts are em-
ployed to insure accuracy in the mak-
ing and fitting of parts.

Blanks for Rambler transmission
gears are hammered out in the Ram-
bler forge shop, and are so cut and
finished as to be noiseless. The ordi-
nary method of making but one fin-
ishing cut on a bevel gear is here
improved by making two cuts. The
gears are tested for silence before
being assembled, and the most deli-
cate instruments for attaining accu-
racy are used.

Piston rings are ground both on
the face and sides. The pistons
themselves, cams and cam-shaft bear-
ings, all ball cones and cups, roller
bearing sleeves and roller bearing
cases and gears, are ground in the
same way. In some cases even grind-
ing processes are not considered ac-
curate enough. The crankshaft bear-
ings are hand burnished to a mirror-
like finish, and no one bearing differs
from another more than one-thou-
sandth of an inch. Pistons and cyl-
inders are finished with such accu-
racy that if they vary one-thou-
sandth of an inch they cannot pass
the exacting Rambler inspection.
Every piston is fitted to its cylinder
with allowance for expansion of just

three-thousandths of an inch. The
maximum variations permitted in any
part is one-thousandth of an inch.
In some cases the restriction is car-
ried to the extent of a ten-thousandth
of an inch.

By an instrument used only in the
Rambler factory it is possible to de-

m J^M l -J

APPLICATION OF INDICATOR TO DETERMINE
VARIATION BETWEEN GEAR CENTRES.

termine if any point on the fly-wheel
rim is heavier than another and how
much. This means perfect balanc-

SPECIAL GAUGE APPLIED TO RAMBLER BEVEL

MANUFACTURING NEWS

ing. Every fly-wheel assembled with
a crankshaft and all motor parts are
thus balanced.

No workman is permitted to fit
Rambler bearings who has not had at
least seven years' experience.

Each bearing is hand-scraped, and
then, by a rolling process, the metal
is compressed to close up the pores,
after which it is given a mirror-like
finish.

The Rambler crankshaft, although
adjusted to a snug fit in 80 square
inches of bearing surface, will, if re-
volved by turning the fly-wheel be-
fore the connecting-rods are attached,
spin freely.

The accompanying illustrations give
some indication of the care and skill
which is given to the inspection and
testing of the various parts of the
Rambler automobile during the course
of manufacture.

A Modern Self-Feed Rip Saw

E illustrate herewith one of
the most popular wood-
working machines manu-
factured by the J. A. Fay & Egan
Company, this being designed to meet
the requirements of any shop for a

medium self-feed rip saw having ca-
pacity for material 18 inches wide
and \y2 inches thick.

Some of the valuable features
which have contributed to the popu-
larity of this machine are the ad-
justment of the feed rolls to and
from the blade, permitting the hand-
ling of very short as well as long
stock. The rolls can be instantly
lifted to accommodate various thick-
nesses of stock, and a spring hold-
down is provided for preventing
short pieces from kicking back. An-
other important feature is the 3^/2-
inch vertical adjustment of the table
instead of the mandrel for various
thicknesses of stock. The machine
has a throat plate, to permit the use
of cutter heads and grooving saws.

The mandrel is made of the best
grade of crucible steel, and carries a
16-inch saw. It has a space of 3^
inches between stationary and loose
collars, for the purpose of using
more than one blade when it is de-
sired to saw lath stock, etc.

A large illustrated circular of this
machine will be sent upon inquiry of
the makers, the J. A. Fay & Egan
Company, 226-246 West Front street,
Cincinnati, Ohio.

THE FAY & EGAN NO. 110 SELF-FEED RIP SAW

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

THE HAMILTON AEROPLANE PASSING OVER THE TRENTON IRON WORKS ON THE FLIGHT FROM NEW YORK.

TO PHILADELPHIA.

(From a Photograph Made by Mr. William Hewitt.)

The Aeroplane Flight from New YorK
to Philadelphia

ONE of the interesting features
about the flight of Hamilton,
on his Curtiss aeroplane from
New York to Philadelphia, was the
fact that he did not hesitate to pass
directly over manufacturing estab-
lishments, railroad tracks, and other
surface occupants, regardless of the
dangers which might accompany an
involuntary descent under such cir-
cumstances.

This is indicated by the accom-
panying photograph, which was taken
as a snap-shot by Mr. William
Hewitt, M. Am. Soc. M.E., as the
aeroplane, carrying its daring occu-
pant, passed over the works of the
Trenton Iron Company. Mr. Hewitt
was informed that Hamilton was in
sight, and, immediately securing his
camera, succeeded in obtaining two
good negatives, one of which we
have reproduced herewith. It is in-
teresting to note that the machine
which thus has succeeded in passing
through the air without any other
support than the resistance of the air
itself, passed directly over a Trenton
overhead tramway, the nearest at-
tempt at aerial transport which ex-
isted prior to the practical achieve-
ment of aerial navigation.

The Bristol-Durand Averaging Instru-
ment for Circular ChartTRecords

THE Bristol Company, of Water-
bury, Conn., have for the last
twenty years made a specialty
of manufacturing automatic record-
ing instruments for pressure, tem-
perature and electricity. Many thou-
sands of these instruments have been
put into practical service. As this
class of recording instruments using
circular charts have come into gen-
eral use there has developed a de-
mand for a simple device to quickly
determine the average of the record
made on such charts and the integral
value for the whole twenty-four
hours or for the time covered by the
record.

This demand has been filled by the
instrument illustrated herewith, which
is based upon a fundamental plan as
worked out and patented by Pro-
fessor W. F. Durand, of Stanford
University, and is constructed in ac-
cordance with a novel design recently
patented by Wm. H. Bristol, presi-
dent of the Bristol Company.

The instrument can be applied for
averaging records of any kind on
circular charts having uniform gradu-
ations, as, for instance, records of
watts, amperes, temperature, press-
ure, etc. Recording instruments

MANUFACTURING NEWS

THE BRISTOL-DURAND AVERAGING INSTRUMENT FOR CIRCULAR CHART RECORDS.

equipped with circular charts are,
therefore, made available for a num-
ber of applications for which it was
previously thought necessary to use
the instruments recording on straight
lines or strip record charts. Record-
ing differential pressure gauges are
coming into use for measuring
velocities and volumes of liquids, air
or gas flowing in mains, and this in-
tegrating device will prove of value
for quickly obtaining total volumes
of flow for any given period of time.

The simple construction of the in-
strument is shown in the accompany-
ing illustration. A wooden base with
a metal socket is provided for sup-
porting and centering the chart. The
socket holds a rotatable pin with a
vertical slot at the top to receive the
bar which carries the integrating
tracer point and triangular support.
The vertical groove in the rotatable
pin allows the integrating wheel to
roll on the chart with uniform press-
ure, due to its own weight.

The integrating wheel is 6 inches
in diameter, the rim being graduated

into one hundred numbered equal
spaces, and is fitted with a vernier,
which makes it possible to easily read
with the naked eye to one-tenth of
one division on the integrating wheel.
The wheel is of such large size that
it is not necessary to supply any
counting device for the number of
revolutions. The number of com-
plete revolutions cannot be more than
two, even for a record of maximum
size on the large 12-inch charts.

To operate the instrument, the
thumb and forefinger of one hand
are applied to the base of the tri-
angular support, which is moved
radially, so as to cause the tracer
point to continually follow the record
curve, while the chart is turned with
the other hand.

By referring to a line plotted on a
sheet of cross-section paper fur-
nished with the instrument for the
particular record curve that is to be
measured, the total reading for the
entire twenty-four hours may be
taken off directly.

A full explanation of the theory

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

upon which the operation of the in-
strument depends has been given by
Professor Durand, in a paper pre-
sented at the New York meeting of
the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers in 1908. This may be
briefly summarized as follows :
; In applying the instrument it is
necessary to have a uniform radial
scale, from which it follows that
equal increments in the length of the
radius correspond to equal incre-
ments in the watts, amperes, tem-
perature, or whatever quantity is
measured.

The integrating wheel, being car-
ried at right angles to shaft passing
through the centre, does not turn and
give a reading when the .tracing point
is moved on a straight radial line,
but if the tracing point is made to
follow a record, the integrating wheel
will revolve and the amount of the
revolution will correspond to the to-
tal of the circumferential elemental
components of the record curve, the
radial elemental components of the
record having no turning effect on
the integrating wheel.

As the lengths of the arcs of con-
centric circles for given angles, or for
the entire circumference, are pro-
portional to their radii, it is evident
that the amount of turning of the in-
tegrating wheel, and the reading ob-
tained thereon, will be proportional
to the average radius of the record
traced.

The instrument is adapted for in-
tegrating charts with either straight
or curved radial time arcs. The cor-
rection necessary for radial time arcs
which are curved may be made, after
completely tracing the record, by re-
turning the tracing point to a point
on the chart having the same radius
as the starting point, the movement
of the tracing point being along an
arc corresponding to the curved
radial time arcs.

This instrument supplements the
Amsler planimeter very effectively, in
that it enables areas to be determined
which are beyond the scope of the
older instrument.

News Items '

Among the recent orders received
by the Nernst Lamp Company were
four from the wholesale establish-
ment of Marshall Field & Co., Chi-
cago, aggregating 888 glower units.
All of the lamps are of the multiple
glower type, and special finished
housings are used. This firm in-
stalled its first Nernst lamps in De-
cember, 1907, the same year of the
installation of 12,000 glower units in
the retail store of Marshall Field &
Co., and has frequently since placed
orders for Nernst lamps to replace
other lamps.

The Nernst Lamp Company, of
Pittsburg, received during the month
of May an order from the Banks
Business College, of Philadelphia, for
an installation of Westinghouse-
Nernst lamps for the illumination of
its new quarters.

The American Street and Inter-
urban Railway Association announce
that their annual convention for 1910
will be held at Atlantic City, N. J.,
October 10 to 14, inclusive.

Mr. George B. Foster has recently
been appointed Chicago sales man-
ager for the Wisconsin Engine Com-
pany. His office will be located in
the Fisher Building.

An indication of the great increase
in manufacturing activity during the
past year is shown in the report of
the Westinghouse Machine Company
at the annual stockholders' meeting
recently held. This report showed,
among other large increases in the
volume of their business, 85 per
cent, in shop orders received, 48 per
cent, in billing in their shop product,
and a net addition to their surplus,
after deducting depreciation and in-
terest charges, of $429,566.61, as
compared with a loss of over $228,-
000 during the previous year — a bet-
terment over that year of $657,-
690.15.

MANUFACTURING NEWS

THE REGAL AUTOMOBILE AFTER THE RUN FROM ATLANTA TO NEW YORK.

A Reliable Automobile

IT is generally recognized that the
real satisfaction to the owner in
an automobile lies in the assur-
ance which he has of the reliability
of his machine. It was this which
gave such interest to the National
Highway Good Roads Tour con-
ducted from Atlanta to New York
City under the . auspices of the New
York Herald and the Atlanta Journal
from June 6 to June 13 of this year.

Among the cars which made the
run successfully we illustrate the
Regal car, No. 8, a machine which,
while not awarded a perfect score
technically, made one of the most
satisfactory runs over roads which
were at times almost impassable be-
cause of heavy rains, etc. No ad-
justments of any kind were made
upon this car, the only troubles dur-
ing the entire run being those due to
the tires, and upon its arrival in New
York the occupants of the car were
profuse in their praises of the splen-
did showing which it made.

The Triumph Electric Company,
Cincinnati, Ohio, have just issued a
polyphase induction motor chart giv-
ing directions for testing such mo-
tors. A copy can be obtained by
addressing them.

Personal

Lucuis I. Wightman, for the past
six years advertising manager for
the Ingersoll - Rand Company, 1 1
Broadway, New York, has resigned
his position, the resignation taking
effect August 1. He will open an
office in New York City as an inde-
pendent specialist in machinery ad-
vertising, handling the accounts of
manufacturers of machinery and en-
gineering products.

Mr. Wightman brings to his new
enterprise qualifications peculiarly fit-
ting him for this line of work. To
his long experience in managing one
of the largest advertising accounts
and publicity departments in the ma-
chinery field, he joins a prior expe-
rience of years in practical mechan-
ical and electrical engineering, con-
struction work, machine design and
manufacture, and machinery selling.

He is a graduate engineer, the
author of a text-book on compressed
air, and one of the authorities on
compressed air subjects. His broad
acquaintance in the world of trade
and technical journalism, his under-
standing of advertising mediums and
methods, and his intimate knowledge
of engineering in many phases, will
prove invaluable to those whose ad-
vertising accounts are placed in his
charge.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

THE ARNOTT PILE HAMMER DRIVING STEEL SHEET PILING FOR COFFERDAM
CONSTRUCTION. UNION IRON WORKS, ERIE SIDING, HOBOKEN, N. J.

The Arnott Pile Hammer

THE increasing use of steel sheet
piling has led to a demand
for a convenient, powerful
and effective machine for driving the
piles in the correct position under the
difficult conditions which usually sur-
round such work. This means that
the satisfactory pile hammer for this
service should be capable of deliver-
ing its blows with such rapidity as to
produce what is practically a continu-
ous effect, without giving the pile
opportunity to stop and be seized by
the grip of the surrounding earth.

These conditions are fully met by
the Arnott pile hammer, made by the
Union Iron Works, Erie Siding,
Hoboken, N. J., and the illustration
above shows very clearly how a pow-
erful pile hammer may be swung from
the boom of a derrick directly over a
cofferdam and drive the interlock-
ing steel sheeting steadily and rapidly
in the precise position required at the
moment. Catalogue No. 2, to be had
by writing to the Union Iron Works,
at Erie Siding, Hoboken, N. J.,
tells of its many successful appli-
cations.

MANUFACTURING NEWS

THE LATEST CATALOGUES

In writing for Catalogues please mention "Cassier's Magazine."

Cassier's Magazine invites manufacturers and others to send it their catalogues as issued, both for
mention in this department and for the very complete library of catalogues which it maintains.

Steam Specialties

The Ohio Brass Company, Mans-
field, Ohio. Catalogue H, devoted to
the valves, fittings and regulators
made by the Ohio Brass Company,
and containing much useful informa-
tion relating to the high-grade fittings
of the manufacturers. These include
radiator valves, valves for steam and
for hot water, union elbows, globe,
angle and check valves, bronze fit-
tings of all kinds, and the Ohio press-
ure regulating valve for maintaining
automatically a uniform pressure of
air or steam from a higher varying
pressure. This catalogue is an ad-
mirable example of the art of the
printer and the engraver, and will
form an acceptable addition to the
collection of the engineer who desires
to be informed upon the latest types
of high-class fittings.

Wire Rope and Fittings

The Trenton Iron Company,
Trenton, N. J. This well-known
firm has just issued a small and con-
venient size catalogue of the wire
rope and fittings manufactured by
them. This catalogue is a good ex-
ample of concise yet clear descrip-
tion of this line of product, and pre-
sents a vast amount of useful in-
formation, with many illustrations.

Particular attention is called to
their patent locked wire cable, which,
due to its construction, affords great
durability and saves much wear of
the carriage wheels. Other products
of this company are described, while
the final chapter is devoted to a brief
description of the Bleichert system
of aerial tramways. The latter,
however, being more fully taken up
in a separate publication issued by
them, will prove of great interest to
anyone who has to do with the rapid
and economical transportation of ma-
terials.

Lifting Magnets

Cutler-Hammer Clutch Com-
pany, Milwaukee, Wis. "One Man
and a Magnet" is the title of an illus-
trated leaflet which this firm has re-
cently issued. It shows, by a series
of illustrations, what one man (the
crane operator) and the lifting mag-
net can do. A cross-section of their
lifting magnet, with full description
of its parts, is also given.

Pulverizers and Crushers

The Jeffrey Manufacturing
Company, Columbus, Ohio. Cat-
alogue No. 31 C, fully illustrated,
just issued by this company, gives
an exceedingly clear yet brief de-
scription of the crushing and pulver-
izing machinery for which this firm
is so well known. Special attention
is called to the Jeffrey swing hammer
pulverizer, so designed that a uni-
form product can be maintained.
This company claims for this new
type of machine great reliability,
large capacity, a uniform, fine product,
greatly reduced consumption in
horse-power per ton, and exceedingly
low upkeep cost. Many other styles
of pulverizers and crushers are illus-
trated and treated, and the book will
be found of great interest.

Mechanical Calculators

The Felt & Tarrant Manufac-
turing Company, Chicago, 111. At-
tractive and instructive booklet de-
scribing the successful adding ma-
chines manufactured by this firm,
which will prove of interest and
value to all those engaged in or re-
sponsible for accounting work. It
contains detailed information of vari-
ous lines of business for which their
comptometer is adapted, with many
flattering letters from large con-
cerns using their machines.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Handling Power

WHEN a layman is handed a
stick of dynamite or a cart-
ridge of nitro-glycerine, he
looks at it with something akin to
awe, because he realizes that it con-
tains latent energy which, if released,
is capable of working death and de-
struction, or, if controlled, is able to
perform feats of power otherwise im-
possible' to unaided human effort.
The same individual looks upon a
lump of coal as a mass of inert mat-
ter, and rarely realizes that it, too,
contains stored energy capable of per-
forming labour of the highest value.

As a matter of fact, the coal con-
tains energy of more value than the
dynamite, because it can be handled
with freedom and used with greater
efficiency, since the power which it
contains, stored within its mass from
the time the vegetation from which it
was produced absorbed the energy of
the rays of the sun, can be released
gradually and continuously, and thus
is available under control, and not
limited to the uncontrollable and ex-
plosive form.

Coal is thus interesting not only be-
cause it represents the stored energy
of the sun in a by-gone age, but also
because this energy is tractable, so to
speak, and capable not only of utili-
zation when and where required, but
also safe to be handled and conveyed
to points where it may be stored until
required for conversion into immedi-
ate service.

The fact that the stored power in
coal is capable of being handled and
stored conveniently has resulted in
the development of machinery for re-
lieving human effort of the work for-
merly considered necessary in this
department of industry, and this has
doubtless been one of the important
factors in the development of the
modern power house. The centraliza-
tion of power generation into a lim-
ited number of high-capacity sta-
tions means the concentration not
only of power, but also of the ma-
terial from which power is gen-
erated, of the fuel which must be

brought to the spot by land or by
water and then raised to the storage
bins and held awaiting consumption.
It must also be delivered from stor-
age to furnaces as. required, and thus
held, controlled and delivered in a
manner practically impossible with
any other form of stored energy.

If coal consisted wholly of com-
bustible material, of carbon and vola-
tile matter, the delivery of the solid
fuel would constitute the entire un-
dertaking, so far as maintenance of
continuous working is concerned.
There is, however, always a non-
combustible residue, forming the ash,
and varying in quantity according to
the character of the fuel itself, and
provision must be made for the re-
moval of this as it accumulates.

In the modern power plant the me-
chanical arrangement for the delivery
of the coal usually takes the form of
a continuous conveyor, taking the
material from barge or train and de-
livering it into the storage bins with-
out noise or fuss, where it awaits
further delivery by gravity to the
furnaces. A similar system keeps the
ash-pits clear of ashes and delivers
the non-combustible portion of the
coal to the waste dump, car, or barge,
and thus there is maintained a circu-
lation not unlike that which goes on
in the human body in its operations
of nutrition, digestion and circula-
tion.

It is, therefore, possible to handle
power in its latent state with perfect
ease, smoothness and efficiency, the
actual energy remaining stored up
until it is desired to release it and
direct it to the use and convenience
of man, and the mechanism by which
this is effected forms one of the most
important elements in the transforma-
tion of manual labour into the far
higher phase of supervision and direc-
tion.

The same principles which have
been so successfully applied to the
handling of coal naturally adapt
themselves to other materials, so that
the scope of the system is widely ex-
tended.

"Hunt"

Noiseless Bucket

Conveyor

For

handling
dry

materials
or liquids

III

Note the action of the bucket,
always maintains an upright position
in whichever direction it is travelling
and dumps at any point desired.

Noiseless

in]

operation

Costs less

for

maintenance

power

and

operation

than any

other

Conveyor

Hoisting Towers
Steam Shovels

Conveyor over Coal Storage Bins
Morgan & Wright Co., Detroit, Mich.

Automatic Railways

Handles

Coal

Ashes

Ore

Phosphates

Sand

Gravel

etc.

Cable Railways

"Industrial" Railways

Electric Storage Battery Locomotives

C. W. HUNT COMPANY

Establihed 1872

No. 45 BROADWAY
NEW YORK

Works : West New Brighton, S. 1.
NEW YORK

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

The Utilization of Friction

NEARLY every inventor who has
dabbled with the fascinating
problem of perpetual motion
ultimately comes to the conclusion
that if it were not for the stubborn
opposition of friction he would be
able to solve the question success-
fully. He does not realize that if
there were no such thing as friction
we should be far worse off than we
now are in all matters mechanical,
and that we should lose far more
than we could possibly gain if fric-
tion were abolished.

Without friction we could hold
nothing in our hands, our buildings
would fall apart, all bolted fasten-
ings would become useless, railway
transport would be impossible, and,
once started, nothing could be
stopped except by absolute blockade
and consequent collision. These are
but a few of the disastrous conse-
quences which would follow the
abolition of friction.

Let us now examine some of the
advantageous applications of frictional
resistance which have been utilized
by the engineer. Apart from the
great application of friction in the
driving of railway trains upon their
rails, of the operation of automo-
biles upon the highways, or even of
the hauling of wagons by animals
upon the roads, we see the useful-
ness of friction in many methods for
the transmission of power. Every
belt depends upon friction to give it
the grip upon its pulleys which en-
ables it to make the wheels go
'round, and the whole subject of belt-
transmission includes a critical study
of the friction possible between the
leather of the belt and the iron or
wooden surface of the pulley, and the
same is true of the rope drive.

In driving individual machines
from line shafting one of the oldest
methods is the use of the leather belt,
running over fast and loose pulleys ;
and it has been said that one of the
best friction clutches in use is this
simple device, by which the shifting
of the belt from the fast to the loose

pulley suffices to throw the power out
of action and bring the machine to a
standstill. This primitive device has
its limitations, however, and when
larger powers have to be handled
something more substantial must be
employed.

Especially when heavy machinery,
offering great and stubborn resist-
ance, has to be driven must some
powerful and effective device be in-
troduced between the motor and the
machine, to enable shocks to be
avoided and the effort to be applied
gradually until the inertia has been
overcome and the moving parts posi-
tively connected. Thus, in rolling
mills, cement mills, rubber mills, min-
ing machinery, bolt works, and simi-
lar situations, it is necessary to start
the power and throw in the machin-
ery gradually, until positive connec-
tion has been established. For such
service some form of clutch mech-
anism is absolutely essential ; a mech-
anism which can be thrown into gear
gradually, permitting a suitable de-
gree of slippage until the motion be-
gins to be transmitted, and allowing
the grip to be tightened until the
hold is secured to an extent which
enables the entire power to be passed
on to the point where it does its use-
ful work.

Uncoupling the work' of the suc-
cessful clutch is as important as mak-
ing the connection. The power should
not be thrown off suddenly, lest the
relief upon the motor, of whatever
kind, be followed by all the injurious
effects of a runaway. With the
properly constructed clutch, the re-
lease is effected as gradually as the
original connection was made; the
tool is stopped slowly and the resist-
ance upon the motive power is gradu-
ally relieved, all destructive shocks
being avoided and maximum effi-
ciency obtained.

There is probably no more effective
illustration of the scientific utilization
of friction than appears in the well-
designed friction clutch, a device
which forms an essential element in
modern machinery of transmission.

Here's A
Clutch
That
"Makes Good"

THE Summit Thread Co., East Hampton,
Conn., who use the Dodge Split Friction
Clutch, recently wrote us — "We have been
using one of your clutches for about three years, and while
our experience with friction clutches in general has been rather
unsatisfactory, the clutch of your make has never caused any
trouble whatever." <^> The Dodge Split Friction Clutch is a real
service-giver. It is doing the hardest kind of work in rolling mills,
cement mills, rubber mills, mines and smelters and other industries.
Some of the largest concerns in these lines have adopted our clutch
as their standard, after exhaustive trials and tests of clutches of dif-
ferent makes. <^> Dodge Clutches are dependable power-savers.
Each department, each lineshaft, even each machine throughout
your plant may be controlled independently of all the balance of
the equipment. Consider the immense saving in power by shut- ^^
ting down idle machines, by having the equipment under
instant control in case of accident to men or machinery

<§> We will be glad to advise with you about Dodge Friction Clutches
to exactly meet your requirements. Write us about your possible
clutch needs. <^> Your name on the coupon brings our Clutch
Bulletin C-i 16, which tells about this "economy mechanism"
Have us send this book to you at once.

Dodge Manufacturing Company, BIJSK" £1^

"Everything for the Mechanical Transmission of Power"

New York Chicago Boston Pittsburg Minneapolis

St. Louis Brooklyn Atlanta Cincinnati Philadelphia

Agencies in other large towns

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

The Question of Handling]

PRACTICALLY all methods of
determining the cost of manu-
factured products divide the
matter into the cost of material and
the cost of labour. Of these, the first
element need not be here considered,
since it must be ascertained in rela-
tion to the facts connected with its
purchase, dependent upon market and
local conditions. The second ele-
ment, the labour cost of a product, is
largely dependent upon time, and is
usually made up of the wage rate
and the time expended in performing
the work. Even when some of the
various wage systems based upon
actual performance may be employed,
these usually have their original rates
based upon time studies, so that the
importance of the time element in
manufacturing cost is almost pre-
ponderant. The subject of overhead
cost, including general expense, and
all the various details which cannot
be charged directly to the individual
job, when analyzed to the ultimate
elements, will be found to depend
principally upon time, while the vital
question of the machine-tool rate is
also mainly based upon time.

Under such circumstances anything
which reduces the time expended
upon a piece of work must have a
most important influence upon the
actual cost of the product, and it is
now generally understood that time-
saving appliances hold a leading posi-
tion in modern machine-shop eco-
nomics.

If this is true in connection with
original manufacturing, it is even
more important in its relation to cer-
tain kinds of repair work. Thus, in
railroad repair shops the principal
item of importance to be considered
in work upon locomotives, cars, or
other equipment is not the actual cost
of the work done in the shop, but
the loss which is accruing because
the engine or car is out of service
and its earning power is being lost.
During busy seasons especially, when
the tonnage is heaviest and there is
often a shortage of locomotives and

cars, the daily loss incurred by delay
in the repair shop far outweighs the
actual cost of the work which is be-
ing performed, and thus every min-
ute which can be saved becomes
doubly valuable.

Formerly there was more time ex-
pended in handling the pieces than
was used in actual machining opera-
tions, especially with heavy pieces of
work. The hauling of the work to
the tool, the placing it in position,
and the removal after the planing,
turning or boring was finished, took
more time than the removal of the
metal by the cutting tool. Apart
from the time of the labouring gang
by which this handling was per-
formed, there remained to be charged
the idle time of the machine tool and
its operator, so that the efficiency of
the handling portion of the job was
necessarily very moderate under the
old conditions.

With the advent of modern hand-
ling appliances, such as traveling
cranes, industrial railways, and espe-
cially of highly efficient chain hoists
and overhead tramrail, the question
of time in handling work has been re-
duced to a minimum and the labour
and expense costs proportionally low-
ered. When one man can pick up
any load up to 20 tons, or two men
with a modern high-efficiency hoist
can do the work of an entire gang
of labourers in a fraction of the time,
it is evident that the solution of a
controlling portion of labour cost has
been found.

The ease with which the chain
hoist can be installed, as compared
with the erection of the more highly
organized traveling crane, renders
the use of such appliances broadly
general ; the overhead tramrail and
trolley, or, when necessary, the sim-
ple hand traveler, provides all that is
necessary for most work, so far as
transport from point to point is con-
cerned, while the powerful and
highly efficient Triplex block enables
the lifting of the burden to be ac-
complished with ease, certainty, and
above all, with promptness.

Silent Service

TR I P LE X
BLOCKS

suspended from
trolleys and jib cranes
in a machine shop ac-
complish three things.

They facilitate and
make easy the serving
of machine tools — they
cut the cost of erecting
and assembling almost
in two, and they utilize
space that would other-
wise be wasted.

The air is their
thoroughfare, and
through it they move
loads with incredible
swiftness, accuracy and
safety.

No banging of trucks
— no pounding and
tearing of floors — they
do their work silently.

Triplex Blocks last a lifetime and you may have one to
try by just asking us or your nearest dealer.

rwfliN ( ** styles: Differential, Duplex, Triplex, Electric
BLOCKS "i 42 sizes: One-eighth of a ton to forty tons.

( 300 active stocks: ready for instant call all over the United States.

Send for the Book of Hoists to-day — Yours for a post card.

The Yale & Towne Mfg. Company

Only Makers of Genuine Yale Products

9 Murray Street - - New York

Local Offices : Philadelphia, Boston, Chicago, San Francisco

Foreign Warehouses: The Fairbanks Co., London and Glasgow. Fenwick Freres & Co., Paris, Brussels,

Liege and Turin. Yale & Towne Co., Ltd., Hamburg. F. W. Home, Yokohama.

Canadian Warehouses: The Canadian Fairbanks Co., Ltd., Montreal, Toronto, St. John, N. B.,

Winnipeg, Calgary, Vancouver.

The Triplex Block saving time, labor
and space in a modern machine shop.

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Core-Drill Economics

IN considering schemes and opera-
tions having to do with the mate-
rial constituents of the earth's in-
tegument, perhaps nothing can be
more suggestive and helpful to have
at hand than an 8-inch terrestrial
globe. It offers special facilities for
us if we wish to do our thinking to
scale, which is really more necessary
than drawing or working to scale, as
correct thinking must precede suc-
cessful and profitable accomplish-
ment.

On this 8-inch globe, I inch in any
direction will represent very closely
a thousand miles : and one-thousandth
of an inch, or, say, one layer of the
thinnest tissue paper, therefore, will
represent one mile, covering prac-
tically our utmost penetration and
knowledge of the earth's crust. The
deepest coal mine in the world is not
more than three-quarters of a mile
down, and none in the United States
has reached half through our sheet
of tissue paper. This may help us to
realize how infinitesimal are our
most boasted operations, in compar-
ison with the bulk of the body
whose skin we have so imperfectly
scratched, and it suggests how saving
we should be of our efforts that none
of our time or strength should be
wasted.

The most valuable of all devices
as yet in sight for the revelation of
Nature's cunningly hidden treasures
is undoubtedly the core drill.

It is of unspeakable value to the
miner and prospector in locating
veins and revealing deposits previ-
ously unknown. Not the least of its
value lies in the determination of
where not to sink shafts or run tun-
nels, thus saving unnecessary labour.

An obvious suggestion in connec-
tion with the work of the core drill
is that its own results should be sys-
tematically recorded and kept avail-
able for future consultation, so that
other prospectors in the same neigh-

borhood or investigators of the same
strata should have the benefit of
the preceding labour without being
obliged to do the work over again.
It would seem to be an open ques-
tion whether the records of the core
drill, however and by whom made,
should be regarded as the exclusive
property of those with whom they
have been originated, or whether
they are not subject to the general
claim of the mass of humanity which
is beginning to crowd the earth and
must live by what can be drawn out
of it.

The systematic arrangement and
preservation of such core samples or
records would seem to be one im-
portant service which could, and
should, be rendered by the new
Bureau of Mines. We should never
be satisfied for this important bureau
to be merely an accumulation of
records after the event. It should
be able also to indicate some, at
least, of the opportunities of the fu-
ture, and thus promote more gainful
practice in working beneath the sur-
face of the earth, just as the Depart-
ment of Agriculture is doing much
to make farms more remunerative.
Immense sums have been and are be-
ing most commendably spent by the
government in mapping" the surface
of the land, and, to some extent, in
determining its elevations and depres-
sions. Expenditures for this purpose
must not only be regarded as
legitimate, but would be insisted on
by popular opinion, if any attempt
were made to curtail them. Why
should we not also advocate the
mapping of the earth below the sur-
face within practically accessible
depths? We can only imagine what
would be the result if the Bureau of
Mines had a thousand core drills con-
tinuallv at work, intelligently located
and directed, and could thus be able to
furnish accurate tabulated informa-
tion for the benefit of future develop-
ment and work.

INGERSOLL-RAND CO.

NEW YORK

CHICAGO

ff/k

' \/\

1 N \

-^Ps^ -J ,1"/,
"#1

'*,\ *flfefe,.\ i

El^i

CALYX

CORE
DRILLS

For prospecting coal, min-
eral or stone properties,
or for making soundings
in contract work, there
is no better machine than the "Calyx" Diamondless Core Drill.
Chilled shot or steel cutters replace the costly diamond bit of the diamond' '

drill, at once eliminating one of the biggest items of cost.
There is no material too soft or too hard for the Calyx' ' to core satisfactorily

and economically.
The softest coals yield perfect cores with this machine ; and cast steel and

corundum rock cannot withstand it.
Steam, gasoline engine, horsepower, power driven or hand types are furnished,

for cores from 1^8 to 20 inches in diameter, for depths up to 6000 feet.
The "Calyx" does its work from 30 to 50 per cent, cheaper than

any other core drill.
You can probably buy a complete "Calyx" equipment for the price you
would have to pay for the diamond bit alone for a diamond drill.

Let us send you Pamphlet 9001, discussing the core drill problem in full.

Products :
AIR COMPRESSORS
ROCK DRILLS
HAMMER DRILLS
ELECTRIC-AIR DRILLS
CORE DRILLS
COAL CUTTERS
CHANNELERS
PNEUMATIC TOOLS
PNEUMATIC HOISTS
PNEUMATIC PUMPS

DOMESTIC OFFICES :

Birmingham El Paso

Boston Philadelphia

Butte Pittsburg

Chicago St. Louis

Cleveland Salt Lake

Denver San Francisco

Duluth Seattle

FOREIGN OFFICES:
Budapest Mexico

Dusseldorf Montreal

Johannesburg Paris

Kobe Valparaiso

Melbourne Yokohama

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.
61

CASSiER'S MAGAZINE

Reinforced Concrete

IT is rather interesting to consider
that, although man has long
known himself to be composed
of a skeleton clothed with flesh, he
has but recently adopted the idea of
placing a skeleton within the structure
of his buildings. Studies of masonry
structures considered the crushing re-
sistance of the stone, brick or con-
crete employed as the sole material,
and emphasized the fact that under
no circumstances was any portion of
the fabric to be subjected to tension
stresses.

When, however, the idea tardily
came to the fore that tension stresses
might easily be met by the introduc-
tion of members of proper material
in the proper place, there was pro-
duced a new system of construction,
given at first a variety of names, but
finally accepted under the generic
title of "reinforced concrete."

The discovery that beams, col-
umns, floors, walls of concrete, could
be given remarkable and unusual
strength merely by imbedding in the
mass certain rods, bars or shapes of
steel, was followed by a rush of so-
called "systems," some good, some
indifferent and some utterly worth-
less. Builders with little or no knowl-
edge of the nature, extent or distribu-
tion of stresses produced structures
in which the use of imbedded steel
utterly failed to produce the strength-
ening effects, and some disastrous
failures reflected seriously upon the
whole art of reinforced concrete con-
struction. On the contrary, able en-
gineers in the United States and in
Europe designed works in which
the various compression and tensile
stresses were properly met by cor-
responding elements of concrete and
of steel in such a manner as to insure
a maximum of strength with a mini-
mum expenditure of material.

There has thus been developed a
new department in the science of con-
struction, one of which the laws are
well known and in which the meth-
ods are becoming standardized. This
is true not only for structures which

must be planned especially to meet
particular requirements, but also in
the production of what may be
termed the "elements" of building
construction.

In the early days of timber struc-
tures the properties of timber posts,
beams and surfaces were well known
and widely adapted. When cast iron
first entered the field it was mainly
in the form of pillars, to support in-
terior crushing loads, although cast-
iron beams, proportioned with heavy
lower flanges to resist tension, or
trussed with wrought-iron rods, were
sometimes employed. Modern steel
structures are the result of a natural
evolution from these earlier types,
and contain columns, beams, struts
and braces, all of standard shapes,
manufactured in quantity and built
up from selected stock.

Following out the analogy, the use
of reinforced concrete is being de-
veloped along similar lines. Concrete
piles are manufactured in quantity
and sunk to form foundations of
strength and efficiency. Columns, re-
inforced to resist deformation, sus-
tain loads far greater than would be
possible for plain concrete, while
beams of almost any required span
are scientifically designed with rein-
forcement along the lines of tensile
stresses.

There has thus been a marked ad-
vance over the early days, when the
idea that any sort of reinforcement
would do was prevalent. The laws
of evolution work out their result in
the world of applied science as they
do in the animal kingdom, and the
fittest gradually survives.

By the use of properly designed
elements, therefore, all the uncertain-
ties which attended the early expe-
riences with reinforced concrete have
been removed and the combined
materials placed in the category of
standard structural details, thus form-
ing one of the widest extensions of
the scope of scientific building which
has been effected since in commercial
introduction of iron and steel for pur-
poses of construction.

Hy-Rib Roofs and Siding

To make your factory or warehouse permanent and fireproof at very little cost, use HY-RIB
plastered with cement for roofs and siding. Saves insurance, repairs and painting. MucrTmore
economical than short-lived, leaky corrugated iron or quick-burning wood sheathing.

Used in hundreds of buildings for Roofs, Siding, Floors, Ceilings, Firring, etc.

itc

iff

1 ill

PMrP^

Hy-Rib is a steel sheathing stiffened by deep ribs
made from the same sheet of steel. Does away with
centering in floors and roofs, and with studs in
walls and partitions.

Merely set the Hy-Rib sheets in place, apply the cement mortar, and the
slab is complete. So simple that your own men or local builders can erect it.

Before you build, write us for complete information and free Hy-Rib
Catalog.

Hy-Rib is one of the products of the Ka.hn System of Reinforced Concrete
— used in over 4,000 important buildings.

TRUSSED CONCRETE STEEL CO.

546 Trussed Concrete Building, Detroit, Mich

KAHN
SYSTEM

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIEit'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Aerial Tramways

WHEN Oliver Evans remarked
that the time was not far
distant when a man would
be able to breakfast in New York,
dine in Philadelphia and sup in
Washington in the same day, many
persons thought he was crazy. If
he had ventured to hint of a rail-
way through the air, he would surely
have been considered by all as a can-
didate for the lunatic asylum. Not
only have such things come to pass,
but an aerial tramway is no longer
looked upon as a novelty. On the
contrary, such lines are now recog-
nized as well established means of
conveyance, not only in mountainous
and other localities where a surface
railway could be built only at great
expense over a circuitous route, but
even over comparatively level ground.
Even when the ground is not uneven,
the cost of an aerial tramway will
compare favorably with that of a sur-
face railway, especially when it is
considered that the cost of re-handl-
ing the material at either end of the
line on the surface railway will often
exceed the entire cost of operating
the overhead line ; owing to the fact
that the cars on a surface track can-
not always be brought close to the
points of loading and discharge.

There is a common impression,
however, that such lines are of
limited capacity, this idea being due
to the fact that the first aerial tram-
ways were of the single-rope type, in
which one rope served both as the
support and the means of propulsion
for the pendant carriers, an arrange-
ment adapted to carry only compara-
tively light loads. The Bleichert type
of aerial tramways, however, uses
separate track cables of the locked-
coil construction for the support of
the carriers and employs a light end-
less traction rope for their movement,
this arrangement enabling much
heavier loads to be carried, some-
times exceeding a ton, so that any
engineer may now undertake to con-
struct such a line to carry up to two
hundred tons an hour, if desired.

"See nothing in it," as Sir Charles
Coldstream remarked, when he looked
with disappointment into the crater
of Vesuvius.

An example of the carrying ca-
pacity of a tramway of this kind is
seen in the line built by -Bleichert
many years ago, for the Vivero Iron
Ore Company in Spain, which has a
capacity of 250 tons an hour.

A distinction should be made be-
tween the aerial tramway and the
so-called wire-rope tramway in which
cars moved over surface tracks by
means of wire ropes. The term
"aerial" very properly indicates the
fact that the loads are transported
above the surface through the air.
thus enabling them to clear all sur-
face irregularities, and rendering it
unnecessary to bridge streams, clear
away timber, or construct any road-
way upon the ground.

The introduction of such aerial
transport has been an important fac-
tor in the development of valuable
natural resources which might other-
wise have remained unavailable, ow-
ing to the difficulties of the situation.
Many valuable mines are found in
mountainous situations so difficult of
access that the cost of railway con-
struction and handling would render
the cost of operation prohibitory. The
use of the aerial tramway enables
such deposits to be worked and the
product to be delivered across ravines,
torrents, etc., to a point where a
track is available and thus enabled
great additions to the wealth of the
world to be made.

The steepest grades and the rough-
est ground may be overcome by the
aerial tramway, and no point is too
difficult to be reached and brought
within the range of civilization, if
the value of the material to be ob-
tained warrants the cost. Thus the
engineer comes to the task of the
exploitation of the natural resources
of those parts of the world yet
awaiting development and extends
the scope of industries to points for-
merly considered inaccessible, except
to the explorer and savage.

l^aiiufacttxmig |pxus

The New Monarch Pile Hammer

THE extending use of piling of
all kinds, including timber,
concrete and sheet steel, has
led to the development of a pile driv-
ing hammer which will enable ithe
work of driving all such piling in a
manner to be performed with the
modern efficiency demanded of en-
gineering operations.

The older method of driving piles
was that of impact of a heavy weight
raised slowly through a considerable
height and allowed to fall on the head
of the pile. This plan was both slow
and imperfect, much of the force of
the blow being expended in crushing
the head of the pile, or in brooming
out the lower end against the soil.
The especial defect in this system,
apart from its slowness, lay in the
fact that the movement of the pile
came to a stop between the blows, so
that the entire resistance with which
the earth gripped the sides of the pile
had to be overcome by each blow. It
is well known that the friction of rest
is much greater than the friction of
motion, and this fact doubtless has
much to do with the inefficiency of the
older form of pile driver.

The general introduction of steam
or compressed air in building opera-

tions has led to the development of
the steam pile hammer, of which the
New Monarch, built by Messrs. Henry
J. McCoy Company, is a leading ex-
ample. This form of machine de-
pends for its efficiency upon the rapid-
ity of the blows given by a hammer of
moderate weight, the blows following
each other so closely that the pile has
not time to come to a standstill before
the blow is repeated. The effect of
this action is to provide what is prac-
tically a continuous movement. In-
stead of a few blows a minute the
New Monarch gives 200 blows per
minute, the stroke being but eight
inches instead of several feet, the
rapid, short blow taking the place of
the slow blow.

In addition to the force of gravity
the New Monarch hammer utilizes
the force of the steam or compressed
air upon the top of the piston, and
the valve movement being automatic,
no especial attention is required from
the operator beyond the general di-
rection of the machine to its work.

The hammer is wholly self-con-
tained, and may be used either in fixed
leaders, when such are convenient, or
may be suspended from the boom of
a derrick or crane, and thus employed
to drive sheet piling, for example,
beyond the reach of solid support in

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

THE NEW MONARCH PILE HAMMER

the construction of coffer-dams, clock
walls, and the like.

The steam pile hammer has thus
become an essential part of the equip-
ment of the modern contractor, and
its use has done much to aid in the
successful applications of modern
sheet piling and in the construction
of foundations for tall buildings,
wharves and bridges.

The construction and numerous ap-
plications of the New Monarch steam
pile hammer are fully set forth in the
catalogue of the Henry J. McCoy
Company, to be obtained from the
manufacturers, at 65 Dey street, New
York City.

Large Gas Engines

WE have referred repeatedly in
these pages to the develop-
ment of the large gas en-
gine, especially in connection with the
direct utilization of the waste gases
from blast furnaces for fuel. Prob-
ably some of the most important work
which has been done along this line
is due to the efforts of the Allis-
Ch aimers Company, and the engines
at Gary and elsewhere are examples
of the extent to which the large en-
gine, using blast-furnace gas, has been
applied to iron and steel works for
furnishing blast and for the genera-
tion of power. We now illustrate
some portions of a notable installation
by the same company. During the
past few months Allis-Chalmers Com-
pany has shipped four gas engine
generating sets and two gas engine
blowing units to the Lake Superior
Iron and Steel Corporation at Sault
Ste. Marie, Canada, and has two more
of the blowing units nearing comple-
tion. Each one of these units re-
quired twelve cars for its transporta-
tion and its weight approximated
1,000,000 pounds.

These gas engine units are being in-
stalled in a large extension of the
Lake Superior Iron and Steel Corpo-
ration's plant at Sault Ste. Marie, On-
tario, Canada. The original rail
mill will have a largely increased ca-
pacity and new plate and merchant
mills will be built, as well as coke
ovens. Operations will be started at
the plant in the near future. For
furnishing power for the mills and
blowing the furnaces the company
purchased the above units from Allis-
Chalmers Company. They will be
supplied with gas from the blast fur-
naces.

The gas engines are all alike, being
of the twin tandem) four-cycle type,
with cylinders 34 x 48 inches. They
conform to the company's standard in
all respects. Four of these engines
are direct connected to 1,765 K. V. A..
25 cycle, 3 phase, 2,300 volt alternat-
ors running at 107 revolutions per
minute. These sets will supply power

MANUFACTURING NEWS

ALLIS-CHALMERS GAS-POWER BLOWING ENGINES

for driving the motors about the mill.
The other four units are to be con-
nected to the new Slick blowing tubs
manufactured by Allis - Chalmers
Company. These tubs are 64 x 48
inches, and are arranged to operate
duplex on the opposite side of the
main shaft from the engine. Each
blowing unit has a capacity of 25,000
cubic feet per minute when running

at 72 revolutions per minute, but can
be speeded up to 85 revolutions per
minute if necessary.

When the new works are completed
this will be the largest steel-producing
plant in Canada, and naturally the
most modern. Mr. Alfred Ernst has
been consulting engineer on the work,
and much of its success will be due to
his efforts.

SLICK BLOWING TUBS, ALLIS-CHALMERS COMPANY, MILWAUKEE

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Record Sale of Rambler Automobiles

Fv OUR hundred Rambler cars were
sold by the P. J. Dowries Com-
pany, of Minneapolis, to farm-
ers in the States of Minnesota and
the Dakotas during the first six
months of 1910. The average price
per car was $2,250.

Because the sales of Ramblers in
the cities have been exceptionally large
and the average price is above two
thousand dollars, this record sale in
the agricultural districts is considered
remarkable. It demonstrates that
farmers are buying cars of better
quality and are not confining them-
selves to those of low value.
J By way of comparison, the Thomas
B. Jeffrey Company have furnished
information indicating that this record
sale in Minnesota and the Dakotas
compares most favorably with sales
of Ramblers in the larger cities.

THE Fidelity and Casualty Com-
pany of New York has issued
sets of rules for operating
high-pressure power boilers and for
operating low-pressure steam and hot
water boilers, which should do much to
aid in the prevention of accidents and
disasters to apparatus in these import-
ant classes. No matter how skilled the
attendant may be, it is most desirable
that he should have before him rules
which have been prepared by able en-
gineers for the especial purpose of
aiding him, not only to manage his
equipment to the best advantage, but
also to advise him of the best methods
of dealing with those emergencies
which are liable to occur even with
the most careful attendance.

For owners the observance of these
rules is doubly important, since they
have been drawn up with the object
not only of promoting safety, but also
for the purpose of increasing durabil-
ity and prolonging the life of the
boilers, as well as reducing the extent
and cost of repairs.

Copies of these rules should be
posted in every boiler room, and they
may be obtained on application to the
company, at 982 Liberty street, New

York. The Fidelity and Casualty
Company is also prepared to give,
through its inspectors, such special in-
structions which may be needed to
cover matters not included in the
printed rules.

The Southern California Edison
Company has announced the selection
of a site at Long Beach, California,
upon which will be constructed a
steam-power electric generating plant,
which will ultimately be one of the
largest in the United States.

In describing the proposed plant,
Mr. W. A. Brackenridge, vice-presi-
dent and general manager of the
Southern California Edison Company,
says : "The first building will be of
sufficient size to contain two turbo
generating units with a total output
capacity of 40,000 horse-power of
electric energy.

"The building will be so arranged
that it may be added to from time to
time as requirements for additional
power may demand.

"The dimensions of the first build-
ing will be 300 ft. by 80 ft., and 90 ft.
high. There will also be a trans-
former and switch room 80 ft. by
50 ft.

"Contracts have been let for a part
of the machinery and boilers. These
are substantially all of the plans that
have been definitely decided upon.

"It is expected that the machinery
now under contract will be installed
and ready for operation about the first
of the coming year."

The Gunnison Valley Power Com-
pany, Gunnison, LTtah, is developing
its water-power site, and has recently
placed an order with Allis-Chalmers
Company for the necessary equipment.
This will include a 540 horse-power
single horizontal turbine, with cast
iron spiral case operating under a
head of 210 feet, direct connected to
a 300 K. V. A., 2,300 volt, 60-cycle,
3-phase, 450 r.p.m. alternator. A 10
kilowatt exciter will be direct con-
nected to an extension of the main
shaft. Three 100 K. V. A. oil-filled,
self-cooled transformers will be used

MANUFACTURING NEWS

to step up the voltage for transmis-
sion.

Arrangements have been made by
the C. W. Hunt Company, New York,
builders of coal handling, conveying
and hoisting machinery, by which their
business on the Pacific Coast will be
handled by the San Francisco Bridge
Company, with offices at 865 Monad-
nock Building, San Francisco. The
company has just completed a naval
coaling- station in San Francisco Bay
for the Government.

The Jeffrey Manufacturing Com-
pany, main office and works, Colum-
bus, Ohio, are changing the location of
their Denver office from 171 1 Tre-
mont place, and after August 1 will
occupy a commodious suite of rooms
in the First National Bank Building.

This company, besides maintaining
a large selling- force in over a dozen
of the leading cities of this country,
also maintain a corps of engineers at
their branch offices, situated in the fol-
lowing cities : Chicago, St. Louis,
Denver, Montreal, Pittsburg, Charles-
ton, W. Va., Boston, New York, and
Birmingham.

There are also nearly 100 Jeffrey
agencies in additional cities in this
country and abroad.

One of the largest single sales of
transformers made by Allis-Chalmers
Company during the month was to the
Delaware, Lackawanna & Western
Railroad Company. The order in-
cludes six 200 kilowatt, 3 phase ; three
200 kilowatt, single phase; two 150
kilowatt, 3 phase, and one 100 kilo-
watt, single-phase, oil-filled, self-
cooled transformers. These will be
installed in colleries and washeries at
Scranton, Nanticoke and Taylor, Pa.

New Dodge Warehouse Building'

¥ T will not be long until the Dodge
i Manufacturing Company will be
storing pulleys, hangers, clutches,
bearings and other stock goods in its
new warehouse at Mishawaka.

Work is progressing with the speed

of a Twentieth Century flyer. Al-
ready the first floor has been passed
and material is being laid for the sec-
ond. As concrete is mixed by ma-
chinery and conveyed as needed by
means of bucket elevators and pipes,
no time is lost in keeping things mov-
ing every working minute in the da>.

The completed structure will be one
of the most modern in the country.
Reinforced concrete is being used en-
tirely with "Fenestra" steel windows,
thus insuring proof against fire. The
plans call for four stories and a base-
ment, the length being 256 feet and
the width 112 feet.

Besides its use as a place for stor-
age, excellent facilities will be pro-
vided for the crating of goods in
double quick time. Along one side
and one end a loading platform has
been built where cars can be filled
without delay and hurried to the Lake
Shore & Michigan Southern Rail-
road by ample trackage for immediate
delivery to customers.

The Dixon Crucible Company at
their annual stockholders' meeting
unanimously re-elected the old board
of directors, and the board of direc-
tors re-elected all the former officers.
An expression of thorough satisfac-
tion with the management of the
company by its officers was made by
the large representation of stock-
holders present.

The Page - Storms Drop Forge
Company, of Chicopee, Mass., has in-
stalled a Westinghouse type J-60
gas-producer plant for generating
fuel gas from buckwheat anthracite
for a Welbe gas engine formerly
supplied by two producers of the
same make. The suction producer
represents the standard design of the
Westinghouse Machine Company,
East Pittsburg, Pa. The plant of the
Page-Storms Drop Forge Company
furnishes 60-cycle alternating cur-
rent for local lighting and power
operations. Mr. Lawrence Foy has
been in charge of the erection of the
new unit.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Polyphase Induction Motors

The wide field of application of the
Polyphase Induction motor is due to
the many advantages inherent in this
type of motor. Prominent among
these advantages are its simplicity,
high efficiency and the small amount
of attention which it requires. Other
advantages are its ability to carry
large overloads for considerable
periods without serious overheating,
entire absence of sparking enabling it
to be used in powder mills and other
places where direct current machines
would be dangerous, and its quick and
certain starting.

Bulletin No. 4751, recently issued
by the General Electric Company, is
devoted to various types of that com-
pany's induction motor. The bulletin
contains illustrations and descriptions
of the design and construction of the
skeleton frame motor of different
sizes, and describes a vertical motor
which can be furnished when this
form is advantageous.

This company manufactures a full
line of mill type induction motors
known as type XL These motors are
specially adapted for such exacting
service as is encountered in steel mill
operation.

The General Electric induction
motors can be constructed for more
than one speed if desired, are made
for various frequencies and voltages
and for two and three phase circuits.
The bulletin contains illustrations of
starting devices for use with these
motors, and also of various parts
composing the motor.

The Precision Instrument Company

THERE has been organized at
Detroit a concern under the
name of the Precision Instru-
ment Company to manufacture and
sell the various instruments now
made in England by the firm of Alex-
ander Wright & Co., these including
the Simmance and Abaday automatic
combustion recorder for the continu-
ous determination of the percentage
of carbon dioxide in chimney gases
from boiler furnaces, as well as the

other devices of the same firm for
recording the flow of steam, gas,
water, air, or other fluids.

Alexander Wright & Co. was
founded in 1843 by Alexander
Wright, and has developed a line of
800 instruments. Mr. Wright was
the inventor of the disc type of
recording chart popular in this coun-
try. Mr. Abaday is the author of
a voluminous work on the analysis of
gas well known on this side, and he
and John F. Simmance, the other
active director of Wright & Co., have
made many contributions to science
in the form of technical papers and
lectures. Mr. Abaday is a member
of the Westminster City Council, and
is chairman of the Council committee
on works.

The Detroit company has the ex-
clusive license for the United States
and Canada.

Further information concerning the
plans of the American company may
be obtained by communicating with
the Precision Instrument Company,
49 Larned street, West, Detroit,
Mich.

The Conquest of LocKjaw

THE popular belief that a wound
from treacling on a rusty nail
is very likely to cause tetanus
is quite correct. This is not because
it is a nail or is rusty, but because
by lying on the ground it has become
infected with the germs of lockjaw.
Moreover, as the punctured wound
caused by the nail bleeds but little
and this blood dries up and excludes
the air, the most favorable conditions
for the development of tetanus exist;
for, as Kitasato, the Japanese bacte-
riologist, proved, the absence of
oxygen is most favorable to the
growth of this germ.

The germ itself looks very much
like a tack. So virulent is it that
its toxin in doses of 1.200,000th of
a teaspoon ful will kill a mouse. It has
been found by experiment that the
poison is carried up to the spinal
cord, not by the absorbents or the
blood-vessels, as are other poisons.

MANUFACTURING NEWS

but through the motor nerves them-
selves. Fortunately, an anti-poison
or antidote has been developed, but
so prompt is the action of the poison
that in an animal, two minutes after
the injection of a fatal dose of the
poison, twice as much of the remedy
is required as if it had been adminis-
tered with the poison ; after eight
minutes ten times the amount, and
after ninety minutes forty times the
original amount is necessary. This
antitoxin is entirely harmless.

As a result of antiseptic methods
lockjaw is now almost unknown ex-
cept after neglected wounds, instead
of being terribly frequent as it for-
merly was. When it is feared, the
antitoxin is used as a preventive, and
when it has developed, as a cure.

In animals, for naturally horses
suffer enormously more frequently
than man, the same antitoxin is used.
In 163 horses that had operations
performed on them, but were pro-
tected by the antitoxin, not one de-
veloped tetanus, whereas of eight
cases unprotected by the antitoxin,
five developed tetanus. The result of
all these experiments has been that
what is known as Fourth-of-July
tetanus has been enormously dimin-
ished, chiefly by the antitoxin used as
a preventive. — W. W. Keen, M.D.,
LL.D., in Harper's Magazine for
July.

The Federal Bureau of Mines

THE act establishing a Bureau of
Mines in the Department of
the Interior, approved May 16,
1910, became effective July 1. As
originally approved, the law contem-
plated the transfer of the entire Tech-
nologic Branch of the United States
Geological Survey, the mine accident
investigations, fuel investigations,
structural materials investigations, the
entire personnel, property and equip-
ment to the Bureau of Mines, but the
Sundry Civil Appropriation act, ap-
proved June 25, amended the law to
such an extent that the structural ma-
terials investigations, including the
personnel and equipment for these in-

vestigations, went to the Bureau of
Standards, Department of Commerce
and Labor.

Carrying out the spirit and intent
of the law so amended, the Secretary
of the Interior has transferred to the
Bureau of Mines the investigation of
mine accidents and fuels, together
with the personnel and equipment of
these investigations, and has trans-
ferred to the Bureau of Standards the
structural materials investigations and
the employees of the Technologic
Branch of the Survey engaged in these
investigations. The fully equipped
testing station at Pittsburg also goes
to the Bureau of Mines.

The Bureau of Mines therefore in-
cludes the mine accidents and fuel in-
vestigations, for which an appropria-
tion of $410,000 was made by Con-
gress. The total appropriations for
the bureau, including salaries, renf
and expenses of removal, amount to
$502,200.

The work of the Bureau of Mines
for the first year will be a continuation
and expansion of the work carried on
by the Technologic Branch of the
Geological Survey. The law in it-
self provides for a variety of other
problems that properly belong to the
Bureau of Mines, and which should
eventually be undertaken, such as
methods of mining and metallurgical
processes, but these activities will be
deferred for the most part until Con-
gress gives additional authorization in
the shape of adequate appropriations.
The spirit of the debates in Congress
both on the Bureau of Mines legisla-
tion and on the appropriation items
emphasized the desire to regard the
mine accident investigations as urgent
and this will be the feature of the
work.

In all, $310,000 was appropriated
for mine accident investigations. Of
this sum under the general plans ap-
proved by the Secretary of the In-
terior, $120,000 is to be spent on the
rescue stations, $36,000 for housing
nine stations, $34,000 for equipping
eisrht new stations, and $10,000 for
additional equipment for five existing

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

stations. The allotment for the in-
vestigation of explosives is $40,000;
for electricity in mining, $14,000; ap-
pliances for preventing mine accidentsi
$8,000 ; examination and codification
of mining laws, $5,000, and other
technologic investigations, ore treat-
ment, etc., $10,000. For the analyz-
ing and testing of the coals, lignites,
ores and other mineral fuel sub-
stances belonging to or for the use of
the United States, $100,000 was ap-
propriated. Of this amount $35,000
will be spent in the chemical and phys-
ical investigation of fuels ; $25,000 in
the inspection of government fuel
purchase ; $22,000 in fuel efficiency in-
vestigations, $5,000 in lignite and peat
investigations, and $4,000 in briquet-
ting investigations.

The mine accident investigations,
which have been transferred from the
Geological Survey to the Bureau of
Mines, were first authorized in the
Legislative Appropriation act of May
22, 1908, carrying for this purpose an
appropriation of $150,000. This was
followed by a similar appropriation
carried in the act for the sundry civil
expenses of the government for 1910.
A mine experiment station was estab-
lished in Pittsburg during 1908, at
which, since that time, investigations
of explosives, coal gas, dust, electric-
ity and other possible causes of mine
explosions have been continually under
way. The mining engineering field
force of the Geological Survey has
already made decided progress in the
study of underground mining condi-
tions and methods. Practically all of
the coal mines in which mine explo-
sions have occurred during the last
two years have been carefully ex-
amined, the gases, coke and dust have
been analyzed at the laboratory at
Pittsburg and every effort has been
made to determine the explosibility
of various mixtures of gas and air in
the presence of shots of different types
of explosives. Considerable progress
has also been made in the investigation
of explosives used in coal mining, and
the conditions under which they may
be used with least risk. Manufactur-

ers have submitted many explosives
for test at the station, and a consider-
able portion of them passed and have
been classified among the permissible
explosives. The investigations and
educational work in connection with
the use of artificial breathing and
other types of mine rescue equipment,
the so-called oxygen helmets have not
only been useful in developing a more
satisfactory use of such equipment in
the examination of mine explosions,
but also better methods for using this
equipment in mine rescue work.

The fuel investigations under the
Geological Survey, and which are
transferred to the Bureau of Mines,
have already resulted in a better reali-
zation throughout the country as to
the value of fuels. One result of this
work is that nearly all of the fuel now
purchased by the Federal Government
is bought on specifications and subject
to test by the fuel division, or pur-
chased after examination made of the
coal supplied by the mines from which
coal is delivered to the government.

The publications of the survey re-
lating to mine and fuel investigations,
those prepared by the Technologic
Branch, will in the future be dis-
tributed by the Bureau of Mines. The
publications relating to structural
materials will continue to be dis-
tributed by the Geological Survey.
The last of the bulletins of the Tech-
nological Branch to be published by
the survey will be issued from the
Government Printing Office about
August 1. This bulletin relates to the
explosibility of coal dust, and was pre-
pared bv G S. Rice, with chapters by
J. C. Frazer, Axel Larsen, Frank
Haas and Carl Scholz.

The first of the Bureau of Mines
bulletins, the Volatile Matter of Coal,
by H. C. Porter and F. K. Ovitz,
will be published in the next few-
months. Then will follow Coal Analy-
ses, by N. W. Lord and J. S. Bur-
rows ; Final Data Regarding Steam
Tests, by L. P. Breckenridge ; North
Dakota Lignite as a Boiler Fuel, by
D. T. Randall and Henry Kreisinger;
Producer Gas Tests in 1905- 1907, by

MANUFACTURING NEWS

R. H. Fernald ; The Coke Industry
as Related to the Foundry, by Richard
Moldenke ; Coals for Illuminating Gas^
by A. H. White and Perry Barkei,
and Petroleum for Combustion Under
Steam Boilers, by I. C. Allen.

These publications when issued can
be obtained by addressing the Director
of the Bureau of Mines, Washington,
D. C.

The Garbage Disposal Plant at
Columbus, 0.

EXGINEERS interested in the
important question of muni-
cipal disposal of garbage will
note with attention the inauguration
of the plant at Columbus, Ohio, which
includes in its details some important
applications of mechanical appliances
which have been used to advantage in
other departments of work.

The plant has a capacity of 80 tons
of garbage per day; at the outset only
half of its capacity will be required,
although it will gradually increase as
the summer advances. Chief En-
gineer Osborn, in charge of this plant,
advises that the entire equipment, in-
cluding all the machinery, is working
without a hitch, and it is generally
considered by the city officials and
out-of-town visitors, who have already
inspected this plant, that it is the most
modern and up-to-date garbage plant
in the world.

The buildings were erected at a
cost approximating $100,000. In ad-
dition to this, complete equipment
approximated nearly $150,000, includ-
ing elevating and conveying machin-
ery, the latter being designed and
built by the Jeffrey Manufacturing
Company. The unique construction
of this equipment will save the city
thousands of dollars. The products,
consisting of fertilizer, oil. etc., will
be sold ; the proceeds, it is thought,
will pay for the cost of operating the
plant.

Notwithstanding the enormous
amount of material to be handled and
the extensiveness of the operation^
of this plant, only twenty men will be

required when the plant is running at
its greatest capacity.

The city has also purchased a num-
ber of new garbage wagons, which
will be put in service collecting the
garbage and delivering it to a point
on Mound street, at the canal. The
Hocking Valley Railroad will convey
it from that point to the new plant,
which is located about i1/*. miles south
of the city limits.

Judicious Advertising

IN an interesting address delivered
before the Associated Advertis-
ing Clubs at Omaha, Mr. R. R.
Shuman calls attention to the value of
trade and technical papers for adver-
tising of general articles, and some of
his remarks will be found worthy of
thoughtful consideration.

After calling attention to the fact
that only about $.7 per cent, of tlx
families in the United States have in-
comes between $3,000 and $6,000 per
year and are in a position to buy high-
class goods, such as automobiles,
pianos, lands, investments, etc., he
proceeds to discuss the advantages of
trade and technical papers. These
are of three general classes :

1. — Trade papers, subscribed for by
a half million retail merchants and
read studiously by them because of
the practical information they con-
tain—missionaries of commerce these,
bringing the wholesale markets to the
merchants' desk ; the key to the whole
problem of distribution through retail
channels. Their readers are employ-
ers, and such of their subordinates as
are empowered to select and buy the
stocks that the merchant shall sell.

2. — Technical publications, en-
gineering and scientific rather than
commercial, subscribed for by the men
who build and equip railroads, fac-
tories, office buildings — cities — by the
captains of industry — and passed
along with authoritative marginal
notes to the heads of their depart-
ments. These papers are depended
on for authentic information, on the
wholesale markets for 'raw materials,

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

the development of new machinery
and methods. They exert a vast
power in both the administrative and
mechanical development of a half
million industries. They are read, not
idly, for amusement, but earnestly,
in the quiet of the private offices, and
they are preserved for future refer-
ence. Here, too, we have employers
for readers, together with their high-
est paid subordinates.

3. — The third general class —
smaller one — is the shopman's paper
— full of practical shop kinks — and
read (as they never read their bibles)
by superintendents, foremen, engin-
eers and other well-paid heads of
families.

These are general classifications
only, as most trade papers combine in
a measure all three elements.

The commercial and technical
papers are ideal for selling automo-
biles, both pleasure and commercial, as
well as such things as pianos, piano
players, high-priced talking machines,
bonds, investments, irrigated lands,
fire and life insurance, travel tours
and the long line of necessities and
luxuries such as only the well-to-do
can buy, and some day some live
maker or seller of such things will
"make a killing" by putting his ad-
vertising money into these mediums
instead of the "hall room" favorites,
read mainly by people who would like
to own these things but can't.

The third class — the shopman's
paper — gets behind doors that are
locked to your salesman, reaching and
converting the men who have the
brains to specify, if they have not the
money to buy, new equipment for shop
and store.

All three classes offer an ideal audi-
ence, paid and trained to read (and
to heed) every advertisement of every
good thing, whether for their business
or for their household and personal
needs.

News Items

Mr. Sylvester S. Howell has be-
come associated with Paul M. Cham-
berlain, engineer, Marquette Building,

Chicago, under the firm name of
Chamberlain & Howell. The firm will
carry on the designing and consulting
engineering practice established by
Mr. Chamberlain. Mr. Howell's
many friends will welcome this move
as giving wider latitude for his talents
and varied experience. Mr. Howell
received his collegiate education at
the Iowa State College, and since 1887
has given his attention to engineering.

The Bucyrus Company, of South
Milwaukee, Wis., announces that it
has acquired the exclusive rights to
manufacture and sell the Hey worth-
Newman drag-line excavators, and
that it has taken over the business
which has recently been conducted by
James O. Heyworth, of Chicago.

These machines have been handling'
material in a manner which has at-
tracted widespread attention. Three
of them are at work on the Xorth
Shore drainage canal of the Chicago
sanitary district, near Evanstown.
Others are being used in various parts
of the country, particularly on the
New York State barge canal and the
Cape Cod Canal. Various recent
records show that the Heyworth-
Newman bucket machines handle
about double the quantity of material
per month that is being handled by
drag bucket machines of other makes.

The important feature of the Hey-
worth bucket is that it is designed with
a rigid bail, which can be adjusted
so that it actually digs the material
instead of scraping off thin layers of
it, as is the case with other buckets.
The bucket is also of such shape that
it clears itself in dumping, even when
handling extremely stick}- material.
It is claimed that this machine can
dig practically any material which a
steam shovel can handle. It is be-
lieved that this excavator will meet
snccessfullv the demand for a machine
which will economically dig canals,
irrigation ditches, and do certai-
classes of railroad construction work.

For full information concerning
this improved excavator, address The
Bucyrus Company, Milwaukee, Wis.

MANUFACTURING NEWS

THE LATEST CATALOGUES

Furnaces

W. S. Rockwell Company, New
York, circular No. II, devoted to t
Rockwell Spring-Fitting Furnace, for
heating and fitting springs, adapted for
use with oil or gas burner, and so ar-
ranged that no blast or flame impinges
directly upon the steel, giving uni-
form and reliable results. Data and
dimensions of sizes are appended,
with directions for ordering.

Rheostats

The Cutler- Hammer Manufac-
turing Company, Milwaukee, Wis.
Booklet describing the Battery Charg-
ing Rheostats for use in connection
with the charging of ignition batteries
and for general charging work. Full
page illustrations are given of ,the
various types, together with descrip-
tions of protective panels and devices.
A table of electrical data and list
prices is given, and the publication
should be of much interest to all who
have to do with battery charging.

Good Roads

Barrett Manufacturing Com-
pany, New York. Handsomely il-
lustrated pamphlet illustrating and de-
scribing the uses of Tarvia for pre-
serving roads and preventing dust.
The employment of Tarvia, a specially
prepared coal-tar material, enables
roads to be preserved and dust
avoided, and this publication shows
how successful it has been in many
parts of the country.

Blowers

L. J. Wing Manufacturing Com-
pany, New York. Bulletin No. 7,
devoted to the Typhoon Turbine
Blower, showing the construction of
this disc fan, combined with a steam
turbine for the production of forced
draft for steam boilers, together with
illustrations showing its successful
applications to various types of boiler
furnaces. The use of the Typhoon

blower in connection with heating
furnaces is also illustrated, together
with data and diagrams relating to the
combustion of coal and the necessary
supply of air.
Cyaniding

• The Moore Filter Company,
New York. Handsomely illustrated
catalogue describing the Moore Slimes
Process for the perfect recovery of
gold and silver-bearing cyanide solu-
tions from slimes, including illustra-
tions of apparatus, arrangement of
mills and data concerning operation
and costs. The illustrations include
examples of installations at various
places in the United States, with let-
ters from superintendents and man-
agers concerning performances.

Reinforced Concrete

Trussed Concrete Steel Com-
pany, Detroit. Illustrated pamphlet
describing rib metal and its applica-
tions in connection with the construc-
tion of floors, roofs, walls, arche~
sewers, etc., of concrete. The numer-
ous applications of this material are
shown by illustrations taken from
actual work, and its usefulness demon-
strated in all lines of reinforced con-
crete work.
Railway Material

Ohio Brass Company, Mansfield,
Ohio. Catalogue No. 8, showing fully
the extensive line of electric railway
and mine haulage material manufac-
tured by the Ohio Brass Company, in-
cluding overhead line material, gen-
eral construction material, track-bond-
ing devices, third-rail insulators and
car-equipment devices. The book is a
handsome example of editorial and
printing work, and contains valuable
tables for reference, besides being
fully indexed. This catalogue is one
of the examples of the manner in
which modern trade literature is con-
tributing to the general stock of
technical information.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Pile Hammers

Henry J. McCoy Company, New
York. Illustrated pamphlet describ-
ing the "New Monarch" steam pile
hammer and its application in connec-
tion with the driving of piles of tim-
ber, concrete and sheet steel. De-
tails of construction are given, to-
gether with examples of numerous
applications and a discussion of the
advantages of rapid automatic action
in a pile hammer in forcing piling into
the ground without interruption of
movement.

Counters

SCHAEFFER & BuDENBERG MANU-
FACTURING Company, Brooklyn, N.
Y. Catalogue devoted to counters,
engine registers and speed indicators,
including several novel types of in-
struments. Attention is directed to
the short-stroke counter, which counts
when the lever acts through the short
distance of 15 degrees; also there is
noted a high-speed rotary counter for
speeds up to 6,000 revolutions per
minute. Electric counters are also
listed, and the publication demands
the attention of engineers and in all
departments of activity.

Steam Engines

Fully illustrated catalogue S-75, of
the Providence Engineering Com-
pany, Provdence, R. I., just issued,
treats fully of their Corliss engines.
It shows a number of installations of
their engines and describes the details
of their construction very thoroughly,
especially those features which enable
successful operation at high speed.

Much data of interest to all en-
gineers are also given regarding floor
space, horse-power ratings, rope driv-
ing, etc.

This company has also issued a
separate bulletin which shows the un-
usual low friction losses and steam
consumptions shown by the results of
tests, the reasons for which will be
found in their Bulletin S-75.

Copies of these bulletins are mailed
by them on request.

Metal Corners

The Hunt Metal Corner Com-
pany, of Westboro, Mass., has issued
a little catalogue under the title of
"Protect Your Corners." It describes
by text and illustrations the Hunt
Steel Corner Bead, which they claim
makes a perfect and lasting plaster
corner. Their other products, such
as the Hunt Metal Corner, for use on
badly constructed and broken brick or
terra cotta Avails and for the corners
of arches, the bull nose corner bead,
the Hunt clamp corner bead, etc., are
also treated of. Copies will be sent
on request.
Safety Valves

An exceedingly unique and attract-
ive as well as useful series of loose
leaf catalogues is now being issued
by the Crosby Steam Gauge and
Valve Company, of Boston, Mass.
Recently received are two, one de-
voted to their spring-seat valves, the
other to their pop-safety valves, the
former valve being primarily in-
tended for high pressures and use in
connection with superheated steam.
These catalogues are very fully illus-
trated, printed in colors and issued
in a series of different colored covers
and are a good example of high-class
printing descriptive of high-class
products.
Casting's

Buffalo Foundry & Machine
Company, Buffalo, N. Y. A unique
catalogue is just received from this
firm in the shape of a trust company
pass-book, with check protruding, and
gives brief, yet clear, information
concerning- the exceptional features in
the equipment of this concern. Their
plant, operated by Niagara Falls
power, is one of the largest and best-
equipped ever built devoted to the
jobbing trade, and produces castings
of any size up to 200 tons in weight
each. Illustrations show different
departments of the plant and a few
of its notable products, such as a
2,000 horse-power gas engine cylin-
der, 72,000-pound hammer frame
made in dry sand mold, etc.

MANUFACTURING NEWS

Storage Batteries

The Electric Storage Battery
Company., Philadelphia, Pa. Illus-
trated pamphlet giving the principal
features of their "Exide" battery,
this battery being designed to take
care of a large portion, if not the en-
tire load, for short periods of inter-
ruption in cases of emergency so
necessary in the present-day practice,
where centralized generators dis-
tribute over large areas. They claim
for this battery high discharge rates
with high voltage, small floor space,
light weight and low cost per kilo-
watt output, their batteries being in
use by many of the large plants of
the Edison Companies.

Scientific BooKs

The Norman W. Henley Pub-
lishing Company, New York, have
just issued a condensed, envelope-size
catalogue of all their publications,
which will be sent free to any ad-
dress in the world on application.

Recording Thermometers and Pressure
Gauges

The Bristol Company, Water-
bury, Conn. This company is now
issuing new bulletins of nearly all
their well-known recording instru-
ments. Bulletin No. 125, descriptive
of their Class 1 self-contained re-
cording thermometers for recording
temperatures, is just off the press.
They manufacture an instrument
especially designed for and now used
to great advantage in many cold
storage plants, which is fully de-
scribed in this bulletin, which also
contains a specimen record chart
illustrating clearly the practical value
of this instrument. Descriptions and
illustrations are also given of the new
models of Bristol thermometers.

Steam Hammers

The Buffalo Foundry & Ma-
chine Company, Buffalo, N. Y. An
exceedingly handsome and attractive
small catalogue describing the Bell
steam hammer manufactured . by the
above firm, giving principal points of

its design and construction in a con-
cise form that will be appreciated by
the busy man. The Bell hammer has
met with a most flattering reception,
there being over one thousand in use.

Diamondless Core Drills

Ingersoll-Rand Company, New
York. Of much interest to the man-
agers of coal, stone and mineral
properties, as well as to the con-
tractors on heavy construction, will
be found the leaflet describing the
Davis calyx "diamondless" core drill
which this firm has just issued.
Fuller information concerning their
core drills will be found in their
catalogue No. 91, just from the press.

Graphite Products

The Joseph Dixon Crucible
Company, Jersey City, N. J., under
the title of "Valuable Graphite Prod-
ucts," has just issued a useful little
booklet, which contains many illus-
trations and full information con-
cerning the practical uses of graphite
in its different forms.

Feed-Water Heater

Power Plant Specialty Com-
pany, Chicago, 111. Bulletin No. 103,
describing the Vater open feed-water
heater, and containing useful infor-
mation for the engineer, architect and
owner.

Economizers

The Green Fuel Economizer
Company, Matteawan, N. Y. Bulle-
tin No. 131, entitled Heat Economy
in Paper Mills, and devoted to the ad-
vantages of the Green fuel economizer
placed in the chimney flue, for obtain-
ing without additional cost the large
volumes of hot water required, not
only for boiler feed, but also for wash-
ing pulp, for use in beater engines,
for making bleaching liquor, etc.
This important application of the
economizer is demonstrated by illus-
trations of numerous installations at
various large paper mills. Details of
the construction of the economizer are
also given.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Terminal Handling

THERE has been much said and
published of late about rail-
way rates and the cost of
transport over long distances, and the
subject is one which doubtless de-
mands close attention, both of states-
men and of railway managers, the
prosperity of the country being
largeh' involved in the ease with
which its products may be brought
from the points where they are pro-
duced to the points where they can
be sold.

At the same time it is not always
understood how excessive a propor-
tion of cost is involved in the de-
livery of material after it has reached
the nominal terminal, and while it is
yet a considerable distance from the
real point where it is to be used.

Probably there is no more tedious,
.expensive and annoying method of

■ delivering merchandise from railwa}
station to warehouse or manufactory
than the old-time plan of unloading
it from the cars by hand, reloading it
by hand again into carts or wagons,
hauling it along streets and roads,
and again unloading it at the point
where it should have been delivered
in the first place. In very many
instances the combined costs of load-
ing, delivering to the train, unload-
ing and redelivering at the terminal
exceed several times the entire rail-
way charge, and yet this excessive
burden is borne silently, while the
railroad freight charge is made the
burden of governmental investiga-
tion and of political recrimination.

Of course, it is impossible for

■ every manufacturing establishment
to be situated at the railroad ter-
minal, and even if it were so for-
tunately placed, the railway service
could not be expected to include de-
livery into the works as a portion of
its transportation service. At the
same time it is possible for most
works to secure railway sidings or
similar accommodation, and this
much being obtained, it remains for
the receiver of the material to pro-
vide his own appliances to supple-

ment the shortcomings of the rail-
road delivery.

Terminal warehouses for the re-
ceipt of merchandise which is in
cases, crates, or similar packages
have been provided in many large
cities, and others are in contem-
plation. There are other materials,
such as coal, iron ore, sand, gravel,
phosphates, etc., which are trans-
ported in bulk, and which must be
handled, to use the old term, by
manual labour, involving the shovel
and the man behind it, or which
must be received and delivered by
some modern form of conveying
system.

This latter is the natural evolution
of the situation. The materials above
enumerated, especially coal, which
forms such an important portion of
the traffic of many raliroads, could
not, under present demands for
power-house service, be adequately
handled at all by manual labour.

In nearly every large power gen-
erating station at the present day
the railway is supplemented by the
conveyor, which takes the fuel from
the cars and rapidly and noiselessly
delivers it to the storage bins above,
whence it flows to the furnaces to be
consumed as the demands of the
boilers require. In like manner the
resultant ash, or non-combustible, in-
stead of being shoveled away by
manual effort, is delivered to the
outgoing cars and taken away as
continuously as the fuel is delivered.

When the railway service connects
with such mechanism, the onerous
charges for terminal handling are
largely avoided, and the apparatus
for completing the delivery, which
has been but imperfectly conducted
by the railway, takes up the work
and carries it to satisfactory conclu-
sion with even higher efficiency than
can be effected by the railroad itself.

When, however, as is too often the
case, the scientific effort to secure
efficient handling ends at the terminal.
a weak link exists in the chain, to
the detriment of the entire operation
of transport.

"Hunt"

Noiseless Bucket

Conveyor

For

handling
dry

materials
or liquids

Note the action of the bucket,
always maintains an upright position
in whichever direction it is travelling
and dumps at any point desired.

Noiseless

operation

Costs less

for

maintenance

power

and

operation

than any

other

Conveyor

Hoisting Towers
Steam Shovels

Conveyor over Coal Storage Bins
Morgan & Wright Co., Detroit, Mich.

Automatic Railways

Cable Railways

'Industrial" Railways

Electric Storage Battery Locomotives

C. W. HUNT COMPANY

Established 1872

No. 45 BROADWAY
NEW YORK

Works : West New Brighton, S. 1.
NEW YORK

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Labour Costs in Manufacturing

IN the determination of the cost
of a manufactured product it is
common to divide this into sev-
eral portions, these generally includ-
ing material, machine charges, ex-
pense and labour. Of these the
labour charge is generally one of the
most important, and the profit or loss
on a manufactured article often de-
pends upon the extent to which the
amount of labour expended in its
production can be kept down.

This question of the labour cost
often includes much more than the
mere wages of the man attending
the machine, and even when the
speed of the tool is greatly increased
and the direct labour charge pro-
portionally reduced, there yet re-
mains a considerable proportion of
expense which originates in labour
exerted in preliminary or subsequent
operations. These may not be actual
manufacturing processes at all, and
thus cannot be diminished by in-
creasing the efficiency of the machine
tools themselves. They include the
operations of bringing the material
to the tool, the accurate placing of
the job in the machine, the prompt
removal of the. finished work, and,
in general, the maintenance of the
continuous flow of work through the
shop.

Such elements of labour cost may
be diminished by skillful manage-
ment, by the provision of such suc-
cession of jobs as shall avoid waiting
for material, instructions and meth-
ods, and especially by the use of the
most efficient appliances for the
actual handling of the material.

Any attempt to determine accu-
rately the time required for the ma-
chining operations performed on a
machine part, and also the time
involved in its handling, the sum of
the two times forming the entire
time of its passage through the shop,
will reveal the extent to which non-
productive movements must be in-
cluded. These latter movements add
to the cost of the product, not only
because of the wases of the men bv

whom they are performed, but also
because they are obliged to bear their
proportion of the overhead charges
and thus they offer one of the most
important departments in which to
effect economies.

Since the costs of these handling
operations, as well as the expense
charges based upon them, ulti-
mately depend upon time, the most
direct method of minimizing all ele-
ments of this department of cost is
to do everything possible to shorten
the time required for handling. This
has been effectively done, so far as
the transport of material into and
out of the shop by the use of over-
head traveling cranes by industrial
railways, and by systems of over-
head tramrail and chain blocks.

An important time-consuming de-
tail, however, is found in the critical
placing of the work in the machine
itself, the determination of the pre-
cise position which it is to occupy
during the operation of machining,
and the removal from the scope of
the tool with care, convenience and
speed. Undoubtedly the best plan to
reduce the time of this portion of the
work is to provide each tool with its
own chain hoist, and its own short
run of overhead tramrail.

The mere provision of a chain
hoist is not sufficient. A hoist for
this service must possess such
smoothness and precision of action
that it enables the work to be placed
in the exact position required. Fur-
thermore, it must have such high
mechanical efficiency that little or no
portion of the effort of the mechanic
is wasted in unnecessary exertion,
the machinist himself must be able
to perform the movements, while at
the same time attending to the nec-
essary adjustment before the tool,
rendering him independent of labour-
ing assistance and adding to his skill
as well as to his strength. The in-
stallation of such handling appliances
is one of the most effective means of
reducing the element of labour costs
both at the tools and in the intervals
between them.

A Matter
of Minutes Only

O put a chain
around a boiler,
hook it to a Triplex
Block and then lift and
move the boiler, is a
matter of minutes only.
Merely in getting
ready you save 90%
of the time usually
wasted.

The Triplex Block

Handling the finished boiler with a six-ton Triplex TTrii-|-| r>rtP man on fVlP
Block on a hand traveling crane.

hand chain will pick
up any load up to twenty tons. When the Triplex
Block runs on an overhead track properly designed,
two men can put the boiler on a flat car or truck
before a gang of men would have begun operations
with skids, rollers and tackle.

You may have a Triplex Block to try on your
own work by just asking us or your nearest dealer.

_,„,TTJ. \ 4 Styles: Differential, Duplex, Triplex, Electric.
RIfCr'ICS \ 42 Sizes: One-eighth of a ton to forty tons.

J 300 active Stocks : ready for instant call all over the United States.

The Yale & Towne Mfg. Company

Only Makers of Genuine Yale Products

9 Murray Street

New York

Local Offices : Chicago, Philadelphia, Boston, San Francisco

Foreign Warehouses: The Fairbanks Co.. London and Glasgow. Fenwick Freres & Co., Paris, Brussels,

Liege and Turin. Yale & Towne Co., Ltd., Hamburg. F. W. Home, Yokohama.
Canadian Warehouses: The Canadian Fairbanks Co., Ltd., Montreal, Toronto, St. John, N. B.,
Winnipeg, Calgiry, Vancouver.

In willing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

The Coal Machine Problem

THE advent of machinery in any
line of industry is likely to
transform its methods and to
change its products or results more
or less. The work and the workers
make concessions and accommodate
themselves to the ways of the ma-
chine to secure its advantages. The
rock drill, for instance, has radically
changed the planning and the work-
ing of the world's great engineers.
From before the time of the Romans
clown to the building of the first
Croton aqueduct water was con-
ducted in open channels, with just
enough descent to permit an easy
flow ; and to secure the necessary
level the line meandered tortuously
along the edges of the hills, and
costly works were required to cross
the valleys and the streams.

Now the rock drill makes the
pressure tunnel possible and cheap,
and it is driven by straight lines
from point to point. In this respect
the coal machine is more or less an
anomaly, in that it gets so few and
small concessions from the work it
undertakes to do. Mining conditions
can be but little changed to accom-
modate the machines, and it is the
machines which must be adapted to
the conditions. The coal mining ma-
chine undertakes to supersede the
hand-worked pick, and it must work
in just the same situations in which
the hand pick has been worked.
Generally, too, the man who has
worked the pick, perhaps for years,
becomes the manipulator of the ma-
chine when it is introduced. It is, of
course, at all times largely dependent
upon the skill and judgment of the
man who handles it, and as the hand
pick is of widely different effective-
ness in different hands, so the ma-
chine makes different showing, ac-
cording as it is handled.

As the conditions of coal mining
vary so much, esnecially as to thick-
ness and pitch of the seam and the
hardness of the coal, it is not to be
exnected that any one style or size of
machine will be universally suitable.

and we might even expect ultimately
a wider series than yet exists. The
coal rriachine may, in the long run,
expect fair play, and will win upon
its merit.

From official notes upon coal min-
ing machines, so far as they have
been fairly tried, the following claims
have been made for them : There is
an increase in the proportion of
lump coal produced, a greater yield
per acre, reduced working cost, re-
duction in the amount of explosives
required, reduced cost for timbering,
and fewer roof falls ; larger daily
wage for the collier, while relieving
him from the most laborious and
dangerous work.

Coal-cutting machines, so-called, are
not new, having been tried in Great
Britain more than half a century ago,
but with so little success or en-
couragement that, so late as 1902,
there were only 166 machines in use.
In 1907, however, there were 1,493
machines.

With regard to coal machines in
the United States, there are some in-
teresting figures, but not very closely
up-to-date. The number of ma-
chines in use increased from 7,663 in

1904, to 9,184 in 1905, and to 10,212
in 1906, 5,911, or 58 per cent., of this
number being of the pick or puncher
type. The percentage of increase in
the production of machine-mined coal
in 1905 over 1904 was greater than
the percentage of increase in the to-
tal production. In 1906 the quantity
of machine-mined coal was 15,451,-
075 short tons greater than in 1905.
while the total production of bitu-
minous coal increased 21,534,643 tons,
showing that J2. per cent, of the in-,
crease was in the machine-mined
product. The average output for each
machine in use increased from 10,-
258 tons in 1904 to 11,258 tons in

1905, and to 11,638 tons in 1906.
The percentage of machine-mined
coal to the total production in 1899
was 23; in 1900, it was 25.15; in
iqoi. 25.68; in 1902, 27.09; in 1903,
28.18; in 1904, 28.78; in 1905, 33.69;
and in 1906 it was 35.10.

INGERSOLL-RAND CO.

NEW YORK CHICAGO

New Ingersoll" Goal Punches

The coal puncher is to coal mining what the rock drill is to metal mining —

the first essential of profitable mining.
The "New Ingersoll" holds the same leadership among punchers that

"Sergeant" and "Little Giant" Drills have been universally accorded in the

rock drill world.

This leadership rests entirely on the question of performance. It is the
endorsement given by the trade to the large capacity, low power
consumption, splendid construction and good wearing qualities of
the "New Ingersoll".

The "New Ingersoll" is a quality machine, built as well as a puncher can be
made and repeatedly proved to meet the requirements of manager and miner.

Thousands are In daily use. Single customers are using hundreds of them.
Practical experience has verified every claim made in their favor.

When you adopt the "New Ingersoll", you at once range yourself
on the side of the vast majority of quality buyers.

We have just issued a new Bulletin 5002 on the "New Ingersoll". Shall we send it ?

Products :

AIR COMPRESSORS
ROCK DRILLS
HAMMER DRILLS
ELECTRIC-AIR DRILLS
CORE DRILLS
COAL CUTTERS
CHANNELERS
PNEUMATIC TOOLS
PNEUMATIC HOISTS
PNEUMATIC PUMPS

DOMESTIC OFFICES:

Birmingham El Paso

Boston Philadelphia

Butte Pittsburg

Chicago St. Louis

Cleveland Salt Lake

Denver San Francisco

Duluth Seattle

FOREIGN OFFICES :
Budapest Mexico

Dusseldorf Montreal

Johannesburg Paris

Kobe Valparaiso

Melbourne Yokohama

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Fireproof Windows

DURING the number of years in
which engineers, architects and
builders have been endeavor-
ing to perfect methods of fireproof
construction, certain details have
eluded solution until recently. It is
well understood that fireproof con-
struction must involve the use of non-
combustible material, usually material
which has already been through the
fire in the course of its manufacture,
such as cement, brick, tile, and the
like. A building, however, cannot
be made entirely solid ; it must have
openings for light and air, as well as
for communication, and the problem
in modern fireproof construction in-
cludes this portion of the work as
well as the wall and floor construc-
tion.

It is not an easy thing to make a
hole fireproof, and yet the holes in
a building form the passageways
through which fire is communicated
from one portion to another. If the
holes can be rendered impervious to
fire, a long step forward in fireproof
construction has been made.

Obviously this means that all wooden
construction must be abandoned. It
is useless to put wire-glass into a
wooden sash, which can be burned
out and leave the protection to fall
away. Apart from its combustible
nature, a wooden sash is ultimately
affected by moisture and decay, and
hence is lacking in the permanence
which is an essential portion of a
satisfactory design.

Under such circumstances it has
become evident that some fireproof
material should be used for window
sash, and there is no material which
has shown such applicability as steel.
Steel sash, therefore, have been con-
sidered as essential, especially for
fireproof factory buildings, rendering
the window framing as thoroughly
fireproof as the walls in which they
are set.

Not all steel sash, however, are
equally desirable ; there is the same
opportunity for skill in design and
construction with steel as a material

as there has always been with the
wooden structure.

The framework of a window neces-
sarily obstructs some of the light,
and the well-designed sash has this
obstruction reduced to a minimum by
making the sections narrow, a con-
struction which also permits the use
of proper depth and consequent stiff-
ness in the direction of wind and
other stresses.

If, as is usually the case, the main
sash is a fixture, and a hinged por-
tion is provided as a ventilator, this
ventilator must be considered prac-
tically as a separate window, and
demands proper design to insure
strength when closed to form a por-
tion of the fire protection, and also
tightness against wind and rain in
stormy weather.

Usefulness and security must neces-
sarily come first, especially in such a
matter as fireproof construction; but
because a thing is mechanically cor-
rect it does not follow that it must
be unsightly. A steel sash can be
made as effective in appearance as
one of wood, and, when well finished
and trimmed, it is open to none of
the objections which have been made
to the use of steel in designs which
have neglected these considerations.
Handsome is that handsome does ap-
plies, above all, to such essentials as
the relation of performance to ap-
pearance in such a serious thing as
defense against the ravages of fire,
and the steel sash has already attained
the position of looking well because
it serves its purpose well.

The perfection which has been at-
tained in modern fireproof construc-
tion is largely due to the extent to
which engineering ability has been
directed to its improvement, and also
to the manner in which details have
been cared for. It matters not if
the broad features of fire protection
have been considered if some loop-
holes have been left through which
the enemy can enter and the destruc-
tion spread. The job must be com-
plete in every detail or it is defective
as a whole.

Fireproof Windows for Factories

STEEL sashes cannot burn or rot — stop the spread of fire —
do not wear out — give increased lighting to your building — cut down
insurance rates and are more economical than wood frames.

UNITED STEEL SASH is the
strongest steel sash, because the sections
are deep and are not weakened by
punching.

Patented

Trade Mark

UNITED STEEL SASH is the
most weatherproof, because the continuous
double contact around ventilator effectively
shuts out draft and rain.

UNITED STEEL SASH gives the
best lighting, because the narrow sections
offer minimum obstruction to light.

UNITED STEEL SASH has the
finest finished appearance and is equipped
with the best hardware.

Write for United Steel Sash Catalogue,
full of valuable details.

TRUSSED CONCRETE STEEL CO.

746 Trussed Concrete Building, Detroit, Mich.

Are you interested in fireproof construction? Investigate the
Kahn System of Reinforced Concrete.

KAHN
SYSTEM

Reinforced
Co

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIEK'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Controlling Mechanism

AN important department of the
work of the mechanical engi-
neer is that commonly en-
titled "transmission of power." This
name is fairly comprehensive, but yet
it does not convey the full scope of
this most necessary sub-division of
engineering work. Power is gen-
erated by some form of prime mover,
and many able engineers are devot-
ing their energies toward the im-
provement of the steam eng-ine, the
combustion motor, the hydraulic tur-
bine, and all the details for the con-
version of the latent sources of
power in Nature into a form of kin-
etic energy which is capable of utiliza-
tion. Another body of engineers and
mechanicians is continually at work
devising all kinds of machinery for
performing the work of the world to
the greatest advantage, and their
products fill our workshops with ac-
tivity and our manufactories with
productive appliances.

Between these two great bodies of
workers comes the transmission en-
gineer, occupied with the design and
construction of devices for connect-
ing .the motor to the machine, with
the delivery of the power from the
point where it is generated to the
place where it is to be used.

The word "transmission," however,
does not fully convey the broad scope
of this department of work, as has
already been indicated. It is not
enough to send the power from the
engine to the tool ; it must be sent in
a manageable manner, it must be
controlled, held in check, released,
stopped, started, and, in general, it
must be rendered completely subservi-
ent to the demands of the intelligence
by which it has been set at work.

In some cases the control is
effected directly at the point where
the power is generated, and many
early systems had no other method
of management. Probably such a
method appears to-day in its most
important form in the case of the
steam locomotive, in which the hand

of the engineer on the throttle regu-
lates the speed and power of a ma-
chine which may reach a capacity of
2,000 horse-power.

When, however, as is usually the
case in manufacturing establishments,
the power generated at the engine is
to be distributed to a number of
points, while the total amount is
maintained fairly at an average, there
must be some means of stopping and
starting the various sub-divisions of
the transmission system, from the
main branches down to- the individual
machines. Here it is that the modern
effective clutch comes in, enabling, as
it does, the gradual start, the prompt
release, and the complete control of
any portion of a transmission system
without disturbing in any way the
continuous and uniform motion of
the prime mover. The clutch thus
bears to the mechanical transmission
system the same relation that the
electric controller does to an elec-
trical distribution of power, and its
certainty, capacity and reliability are
essential to the satisfactory operation
of any system.

It is now well understood that an
important element in the proper oper-
ation of a machine lies in the gradual
application of power in starting,
avoiding shocks, and enabling inertia
to be overcome gradually. At the
same time, it often becomes neces-
sary to disconnect a machine instantly
from the source of power, both in
the course of regular operation or
because of some immediate emergency
demand. The same clutch must be
able to serve both purposes, and if it
cannot do this it fails of rendering
full satisfaction. When to these es
sentials of operation are added the
requirements of ease of installation,
freedom to inspection and repair,
stability and strength in operation,
and entire convenience of control, it
will be seen that the problem of
clutch design is no simple one, but
calls for the combination of mechan-
ical ingenuity and thorough practical
experience.

I^taimfacturiug HUjius

Albert Spies

ALBERT SPIES, who for four-
teen years was editor of
Cassier's Magazine, died
suddenly on August 16, 1910. Mr.
.Spies was born in 1862, and was
graduated as mechanical engineer
from the Stevens Institute of Tech-
nology in 1881. After several years'
experience in engineering work
and in technical journalism in
connection with the "Iron Age," he
became, in 1893, editor of this maga-
zine, a position which he retained
until the close of 1906. In 1904 he
added to his work on this magazine
the conduct of the "Electrical Age,"
but relinquished both to become edi-
tor of the "Electrical Record" in
1907. About a year ago he under-
took the establishment of a new peri-
odical, entitled "Foundry News," de-
voted to the general foundry trade,
and at the time of his death he was
both proprietor and editor of that
publication.

Mr. Spies was a member of the
American Society of Mechanical En-
gineers, the American Institute of
Mining Engineers, the American In-
stitute of Electrical Engineers, and
the Engineers Club of New York.

A Self-Propelled Machine Shop

THE North Coast "Short Line"
Railroad, of which Mr. Robt.
E. Strahorn is president, is
still forcing its way through central
and western Washington, from Spo-
kane west to the rock}7 slope of the
Cascades. The north coast passes
through the most fertile, irrigated
valleys in the State, and will cross
the Snake and Columbia Rivers, the
latter in two different places ; at the
present time just completing the
bridge at Burbank, across the Colum-
bia, at a cost of $1,000,000. This
line is the Walla Walla extension,
which will probably build east
through the Blue Mountains and
make connections with some eastern
line.

The ever-expanding needs of trans-
portation facilities are still inadequate
to meet the demands of this great
Northwest.

Crossing the Cascades at a mini-
mum grade of 1.4 per cent, we drop
down on the western slope with an
excellent grade, where we join with
the Pacific Coast extension, passing
through this State's greatest and
most beautiful forests.. Emerging
out into the open, the North Coast

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

NORTH COAST MACHINE CAR

stretches out north and south, con-
necting Seattle, Tacoma and Port-
land and an outlet to San Francisco
and the Orient.

Engineering experience has solved
a problem, whereby the North Coast
has settled on a low pass through the
Cascades.

The line now building from North
Yakima to a point on the Columbia.

in Walla Walla County, making con-
nections with the O. R. & N., will be
completed and in operation early this
year for the fall trade.

The North Coast equipment is all
new, and of the very best and latest
designs, including two gasoline motor
passenger cars for the local business.

The advance in mechanical appli-
ances, which will be used in construc-

INTERIOR OF MACHINE CAR

MANUFACTURING NEWS

tion work, has been very well
planned.

It was deemed necessary to devise
a way for repairs for locomotives
and other equipment, until such time
as a permanent shop could be located
and erected. Herewith we show cuts
of equipment already on the ground
- — motor car and machine car. The
interior of machine car shows a 12
horsepower Fairbanks-Morse vertical
gasoline engine, oil-cooled. The en-
gine is connected to a friction clutch
and to the wheels of car by sprockets
and chain, which enables the operator
to do switching with the car and also
to move from one station to another,
doing work without assistance of a
locomotive, making eight or ten miles
an hour. Tools in car are as fol-
lows : One 23-inch engine lathe, one
16-inch shaper, one 1 3/2-inch bolt cut-
ter, one 6-inch pipe threading ma-
chine, emery wheel, and a 22-inch
vertical drill. The dimensions of car
inside are 39 feet 10 inches long,
9 feet 6 inches wide and 9 feet high.

The gasoline engine when running
shop 12% hours consumed four gal-
lons gasoline, with two men work-
ing in car on different tools as the
work came in. The engine has been
running nine months without costing
one cent for repairs.

Practical Demonstrations of Oxy-
Acetylene Welding

AT the recent conventions of the
Master Car Builders and the
Master Mechanics, at Atlantic
City, there was among the various
exhibits a demonstration booth of
the oxy-acetylene welding apparatus,
made by the Davis-Bournonville
Company, of 80 West Street, New
York. At this booth demonstrations
were made of welding horizontal
steel plate from the under side ; weld-
ing patches in fire-box sheets, re-
planing heavy castings used on
locomotives and cars, as well as
cutting steel and iron, other than
cast iron, to the thickness of several
inches. These operations attracted
much interest, not only among the
railroad men present, but also among

others who saw them. The result
was that various repair jobs demand-
ing immediate attention at Atlantic
City were brought to the exhibitors,
who showed the practical value of
the apparatus in performing these
special jobs.

Thus the motor of the United
States Wave Power Company, in-
stalled on the pier, met with an un-
fortunate accident, which would have
necessitated closing clown for at
least a week and the sending of the
broken parts to Philadelphia for re-
pair. The deranged portion of the
buoy, and also broken walking beams
were welded by the oxy-acetylene
apparatus and the machinery was in
operation again within two hours,
the welded parts holding perfectly
and standing severe strains under
high seas.

In like manner a machine belong-
ing to the Carborundum Company,
of Niagara Falls, was repaired. This
machine had been allowed to drop
while unloading, and two cast-iron
supporting arms were broken. The
otherwise' useless machine was
quickly repaired by oxy-acetylene
welding and made available for im-
mediate service. A Cincinnati shaper
had its vertical slide broken off for
nearly its entire length, crippling the
machine. In two hours it was
welded successfully and the tool was
taking a Y -inch cut without diffi-
culty.

These live examples of the capa-
bility of the apparatus should cause
manufacturers to "sit up and take
notice."

Cement Waterproofing

AN exceedingly valuable pamph-
let has recently been issued
by F. William Stacker & Co.,
Inc., general sales agents of the Hy-
dro-Tar Waterproofing Company, 34
West Thirty-third street, New York,
entitled "Some Facts in Regard to
Waterproofing." It contains much of
interest concerning the modern
method of waterproofing cement,
stone, etc. A copy can be obtained on
application.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

THE LANDIS STATIONARY DIE HEAD

Stationary Die Head for Pipe
Threading

THE illustrations given herewith
show a stationary die head
for pipe threading as manu-
factured by the Landis Machine
Company, Waynesboro, Pa., using
the Landis type of die with a manu-
ally operated die head.

This head is made especially for
use on pipe threading machines
wherein the pipe revolves and the
head remains stationary, the dies be-
ing opened and closed by hand. The
head is made entirely of steel, as
are also the die holders. The head
car. be mounted on the carriage of
*tny of the standard pipe machines
and can be handled in the same man-
ner as the other styles of heads, but
has the advantage of the long-life
die as illustrated herewith.

The chaser for these die heads can
be made to good advantage from
high speed steel, as they never re-
quire to be annealed, rehobbed or re-
tempered, and their life is many
times that of any other die. The
sharpening of • the die is a simple
operation and is taken care of by
grinding on the ends of the chasers
and again setting them to the correct
cutting position in the holders by

means of a small gauge furnished
with your die head.

The heads are made in standard
sizes to take work up to and includ-
ing 4 inches. One of the great ad-
vantages in this die for threading
pipe is the fact that one set of dies
will cut all the diameters coming
within the same pitch. As there is
but one pitch covering the sizes from
i inch to 2 inches inclusive, one set
of dies covers this range. The same
is true on the other pitches.

HOLDER FOR LANDIS DIE HEAD

Among the illustrations is shown
one of the holders used for pipe for
threading where it is not necessary
to cut very close to a shoulder. The
clamp with which this chaser is held
is what is known as their mill clamp,
which, besides holding- the chaser
rigidly, protects the chaser in case

MANUFACTURING NEWS

the pipe splits, the latter occurence
happening very frequently. The
clamp, as shown in the cut, comes
down over the throat of the die and
is rounded out near the cutting point
so as to act as a guide for rough
ends, and at the same time when a
twister occurs in the pipe the strain
is thrown in great part on the clamp,
thus protecting the die in such man-
ner that the liability to breakage is
very small. In case of threading
close to a shoulder a clamp is used
which comes flush with the front
edge of the chaser only, thus per-
mitting the die to run close up
against the shoulder as in threading
short nipples, etc.

The advantages of the die are many.
It admits of cutting speeds from 25

THE LANDIS CHASER

to 100 per cent, higher than the
hobbed type of die, and the rake can
at all times be ground to suit the
quality of the material in the pipe to
be threaded. Much of the merchant
pipe on the market to-day is very
•stringy and tough, but with this type
of die it is possible to get the ideal
cutting condition and results can be
produced that are second to none.

The heads are graduated for set-
ting the dies to the different di-
ameters to be threaded. The head
is opened and closed by hand, and
when in the closed position the die
is rigidly locked, but is opened and
closed freely by means of the lever.

The advantages of this head over

other types of pipe threading die
heads lie in the life of the dies, the
higher cutting speeds that can be ob-
tained, and the flexibility of the die
to the different qualities of material
to be threaded.

All dies are made to interchange
perfectly, and if one chaser of a set
should be worn out in advance of
the others this single chaser can be
replaced without replacing the entire
set.

Dies of any one pitch will inter-
change on any of the die heads so
long as the pitch is within the range
of the head. For example, dies for
threading i-inch pipe on the I -inch
head will also thread i-inch pipe on
the 2-inch head, or vice versa, thus
avoiding the necessity of carrying a
large assortment of dies to cover the
range of work when using a number
of these heads.

The heads are made in standard
sizes, ranging from 34 to 4 inches.

Cableways at Panama

A LETTER of endorsement re-
cently given by a high official
of the Isthmian Canal Com-
mission to the operator who had
charge of the eight Lidgerwood
cableways used in building the Gatun
locks during the preceding eleven
months, contains incidentally a re-
markable record of efficiency of the
cableways. This passage reads as
follows :

"These cableways so far as de-
lays from breakage or repairs were
concerned, while working 12^ hours
per day, have been kept up to an
efficiency of 99 per cent."

That is to say, that during this
whole period only one per cent, of
time was lost on account of making
repairs.

The cableways referred to are
eight of the thirteen cableways de-
signed and built by the Lidgerwood
Manufacturing Company for the
Isthmian Canal Commission. The
other five are used for handling the
broken stone and sand for the con-

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

A FAMILY MOVING-PICTURE MACHINE.

Crete, taking it from barges and de-
livering it to the storage yards some
600 feet away on the average. The
total to be handled will be 2,000,000
cubic yards of broken stone and
1,000,000 cubic yards of sand.

The eight cableways for building
the locks are used for placing the
concrete and reinforcement and also
for handling forms.

They are traveling cableways of
800 foot span, operated electrically.
They are handling on every working
day more than 3000 cubic yards of
concrete. Up to June 4th there had
been placed in the Gatun Locks and
its auxiliary plant 437,461 ^ cubic
yards of concrete. The amount
placed in the five days from May
31st to June 4th inclusive was 16,-
809 yards, an average of 3361 cubic
yards per day.

A Household Moving Picture Machine

THE moving picture machine is
now so firmly established as a
means of entertainment and
instruction that it needs no induce-
ment to add to its popularity as a
public apparatus. The machines now
on the market, however, are intended
for use in public halls and are neces-
sarily powerfvd and costly. The ma-
chine shown in the illustration, how-
ever, is intended for general sale
for use in families, schoolrooms and
similar places and can be furnished
at a price no greater than is re-
■ (juried for a good projecting lan-
tern for ordinary slides. Since it is
now possible to rent films of almost
unlimited variety, covering illustra-
tions of animal life, such as insects,
birds, reptiles, etc., or studies of phy-
sical or optical phenomena, besides

MANUFACTURING NEWS

the wide range of popular subjects,
the opportunities afforded by such
a machine from the educational point
of view are very great.

The machine uses the standard
films, it gives a picture free from
flickering and unsteadiness, and it
may be used either with electric light
or with incandescent gas burner, so
that it is available in almost any lo-
cality. It is the only home machine
which has been passed upon favor-
ably by the departments of Water
Supply, Gas and Electricity, and the
Fire Department of New York City,
so that its safety is assured. It may
be set up for use in a minute, and it
forms an essential piece of apparatus
for every school room, clubhouse and
intellectual family in the country.

The manufacturer desires to make
arrangements for its extensive manu-
facture and sale, and any communi-
cations addressed to M. P. M., care
Cassier's Magazine, New York, N.
Y., will receive prompt attention.

The Sebco Fascut Drill, designed
for use where a deep, sharp-cut hole
is to be drilled, is an evolution of the
Star Expansion Bolt Company's Star
Stone Drill. The Sebco Fascut is a
five-pointed drill. Where a hole is
to be drilled in a hurry — where a me-
chanic cannot stop to waste time
with a slower and more clumsy tool
— the Sebco Fascut is admirably
adapted. A raised head-on drill pre-
vents clotting or binding, a very im-
portant feature.

This drill can be handled exactly
the same as any stone drill. The
difference between the ordinary stone
drill and the Sebco Fascut is that
the faster and more efficient drilling
power of the Sebco Fascut renders it
a more profitable investment. A 70-
page superbly illustrated catalogue of
Star Products will be sent to any-
one upon request, together with free
working samples of several Star
Products, by addressing Star Expan-
sion Bolt Company, 147-149 Cedar
Street, New York City.

THE preface to the eighth edition
of Kent's Mechanical Engi-
neers' Pocketbook, soon to be
issued by John Wiley & Sons, New
York, states as follows :

During the first ten years following
the issue of the first edition of this
book, in 1895, the attempt was made
to keep it up 10 date by the method of
cutting out pages and paragraphs, in-
serting new ones in their places, by
inserting pages lettered a, b, c, etc.,
and by putting some new matter in
an appendix. In this way the book
passed to its seventh edition in Octo-
ber, 1904. After 50,000 copies had
been printed it was found that the
electrotype plates were beginning to
wear out, so that extensive resetting
of type would soon be necessary.
The advances in engineering practice
also had been so great that it was
evident that many chapters required
to be entirely rewritten. It was
therefore determined to make a
thorough revision of the book, and
to reset the type throughout. This
has now been accomplished after
four years of hard labor. The size
of the book has increased over 300
pages, in spite of all efforts to save
space by condensation and elision of
much of the old matter and by reset-
ting many of the tables and formu-
lae in shorter form. A new style of
type for the tables has been designed
for the book, which is believed to be
more easily read than the old.

The same publishers announce "En-
gineering Reminiscences, 1855-1882,"
by Charles T. Porter, a work show-
ing the origin and growth, in the au-
thor's mind, of the high speed idea,,
now completely presented for the first
time. The development of the gover-
nor is given, as well as the wonderful*
fact that the secret of its astonishing
action had remained unobserved for
fifty years, and its discovery by the au-
thor will undoubtedly command the
close attention of all engineers. The
book is filled with incidents and shows
dramatic situations.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Charles T. Porter

CHARLES T. PORTER, the
veteran mechanical engineer,
died from old age at the
home of his son in Montclair, N. J.,
on August 29. Mr. Porter, who
was so well known in engineering
circles, was born at Auburn, N. Y.,
in 1826, graduating from Hamilton
College in 1845, ar>d was admitted to
the bar in 1847.

He practiced law first in Roches-
ter and later in New York, but aban-
doned the legal profession after a
few years for mechanical pursuits, in
which line of effort he was destined
to be so widely known. During long
practice as a mechanical engineer he
devoted himself especially to steam
engineering, which owes much to his
many valuable inventions. As early
as 1859 he patented the central coun-
terpoise governor for steam engines,
in which the resistance from friction
was practically eliminated and the
theoretical action of the "conical pen-
dulum" was closely realized. His
next patent, granted in 1861, was for
an isochronous centrifugal governor
for marine engines. This gov-
ernor was new in principle, the re-
sistance to the centrifugal force of
the revolving balls being furnished
by a spring, to which was given such
an amount of initial compression that
its further compression by the ex-
pansion of the balls caused its resist-
ance to increase in the same ratio
in which the centrifugal force of the
balls was increased by the enlarge-
ment of their circle of revolution,
thus making the two counteracting
forces in equilibrium in every posi-
tion of the balls, at a constant num-
ber of revolutions per minute, a prin-
ciple which came into extensive use
in governors revolving about the axis
of the engine shaft.

With Mr. John T. Allen, in about
i860, Mr. Porter gave his active at-
tention to the now well-known Por-
ter-Allen engine, the Valves and valve
motion of which were wholly the in-
vention of Mr. Allen, Mr. Porter df
voting himself to its constructive fea-
tures, which were for some time pe-
culiar to it.

These constructive features de-
signed by Mr. Porter were so suc-
cessful that most of them are now
more or less in general use.

He made an extensive study of the
theoretical and practical conditions
which are involved in the employ-
ment of high rotative speeds in sta-
tionary steam engines, being the first
manufacturer ot these engines to
employ such speeds with success.
Many builders and power users of
the time ridiculed his theories and
prophesied failure for their embodi-
ment, pointing out the impossibility
of proper admission and exhaust un-
der the conditions he advocated.
These same men lived, however, to
claim and prove perfect steam distri-
bution for engines at even higher
piston speeds.

Mr. Porter was one of the organ-
izers of the American Society of Me-
chanical Engineers and served as a
manager during 1882-83 and as a
vice-president from 1886- 1888, and
was conferred the distinction of hon-
orary membership in the society in
1890. He was a frequent and val-
ued contributor to its transactions.
He was also well known as the au-
thor of a number of essays, among
them being "Mechanics and Faith ; a
Study of Spiritual Truth in Na-
ture."

In 1909 he was awarded the John
Fritz medal, the other recipients thus
far having been Lord Kelvin, Alex-
ander Graham Bell, Thomas A. Edi-
son and George Westinghouse.

The results of Mr. Porter's en-
deavor during later years, with which
all engineers are familiar, well ful-
filled the promise of his early ca-
reer.

Mr. Frank Koester, of New York,
in an important paper presented be-
fore the recent convention of the So-
ciety for the Promotion of Engineer-
ing Education, held at Madison, Wis-
consin, discussed in detail the edu-
cational system of the German Tech-
nical Universities. He also analyzed
the conditions and standing of the
German engineer as compared with
our own.

MANUFACTURING NEWS

A Handy Tool

WE are pleased to call our
readers' attention to some-
thing of special interest to
them on this page in the way of a
vertical hollow chisel mortiser, manu-
factured by J. A, Fay & Egan Com-
pany. It will be found a very handy
and durable tool for the class of
work intended.

This machine will mortise to a
depth of 3 inches or 6 inches by re-
versing the stock. It accommodates

chisels from Va inch to

inches

/4 men lu ^4
square.

Frame is a single piece casting
with good floor support, and is per-
fectly rigid.

Table is a^/i inches wide and 30

VERTICAL HOLLOW CHISEL MORTISER.

inches long and moved by foot power
a distance of 6 inches. It is pro-
vided with clamps to hold the stock
and angles 40 degrees in either di-
rection. It is adjusted up and down
by crank and bevel gears, and is
gibbed to the column of machine, and
is provided with stop rod to regulate
depth of mortise.

Chisel mandrel is made of the best

grade of crucible steel and runs in
self-oiling bearings lined with genuine
babbit.

For further information concern-
ing this new tool, you are invited by
the manufacturers to write for large
illustrated circular. The proper ad-
dress of the manufacturers is 226-
246 West Front street, Cincinnati,
Ohio.

Producer Gas for Power and Fuel

Attention, is called to the rapid in-
crease in the use of producer gas
power in the United States in an at-
tractive and interesting catalogue just
issued by the Syracuse Industrial Gas
Company of Syracuse, N. Y. The
book contains a table showing the
comparative cost of power and much
information concerning" producer
plants.

Charles F. Kenworthy, until re-
cently with the engineering depart-
ment of the American Brass Com-
pany, and formerly engaged by the
Kenworthy Engineering Company,
has been engaged by the Rockwell
Furnace Company, to represent them
in the New England States and
Canada.

Mr. H. J. F. Porter has been en-
gaged during the past summer in an
investigation of hygienic conditions
and their effect on the efficiency of
the employees in manufacturing estab-
lishments in Pittsburg for the Rus-
sell Sage Foundation.

The Golden-Amderson Valve Spe-
cialty Company, Pittsburg, Pa., re-
port that the United States Steel Cor-
poration have ordered three hundred
Golden-Anderson cushioned triple-
acting non-return valves for the pro-
tection of their power stations. This
company manufactures a very full
line of valves for all purposes. The
Golden-Anderson triple valve can be
tested at any time without interfer-
ence in the operation of the plant, it
being- entirely automatic.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

THE LATEST CATALOGUES

In writing for Catalogues, please mention Cassier's Magazine

Cassier's Magazine invites manufacturers and others to send it their catalogues as issued, both for"
mention in this department and for the very complete library of catalogues which it maintains.

Machine Snop

Charles E. Dressler, 388 Second
avenue, New York City. Catalogue
containing Hints to Inventors, dis-
cussing the facilities possessed by the
establishment for experimental work,
the development of inventions, elec-
trical testing and designing, and the
production of models of all kinds for
manufacturers, colleges, etc. Es-
pecial attention is given to aiding in-
ventors to realize their ideas in prac-
tical form.

Drop Hammers and Forgings and
Forged Tools

An exceedingly attractive and val-
uable series of catalogues has re-
cently been issued by the Billings &
Spencer Co., of Hartford, Conn.
The series consists of five books of a
most convenient size, each book
treating of one class of their well-
known products, as follows :

1. Machinists' Tools, etc. One hun-
dred and twenty-eight pages of text,
with a carefully arranged index and
over a hundred half-tone illustrations.

2. Automobile Forgings and Tools.
Sixty pages of text describing fully
this branch of their business, a
branch that has grown year by year
with the growth of the automobile in-
dustry, illustrated by 60 half-tones.

3. Drop-Hammers and Forgings.
Sixty pages of descriptive text, illus-
trated with more than thirty half-
tones, both text and illustrations
printed on tinted .backgrounds of
white paper. Contains very full in-
formation concerning their drop-
hammers and forging machinery,
and also a large line-drawing, show-
ing all details of the construction of
their latest hammer. In addition,
much information of general inter-

est to all drop-hammer users is
given.

4. Fine Tools and Specialties. An
exceedingly attractive and well-ar-
ranged example of modern high-
grade printing, containing 19
illustrations of their well-known
specialties, such as caliper gauges,
Billings' improved pocket calipers,
rules, depth gauge, micrometer
holders, jewelers' anvils, Billings''
patent vises, and combination vise,^
clamp and anvil, combination maga-
zine knife and screw-driver, etc.

5. Drop-Forged Commutator Bars.
Fully descriptive of their well and'
favorably known commutator bars.

Alternators

Ideal Electric & Manufactur-
ing Company, Mansfield, Ohio. Bul-
letin No. 105 1, illustrating and de-
scribing revolving field alternators,
types "F" and "FW," especially
adapted for use in small power
plants and isolated plants delivering
single and polyphase currents. The
machines are described in detail, and
data and results of performances are-
included, including characteristic
curves, and temperature curves when
operating under full load.

Conveyors

The Brown Hoisting Machin-
ery Company, Cleveland, O. Special
catalogue devoted to modern ore and
coal handling machinery, and con-
taining more than one hundred full-
page illustrations of large installa-
tions of cranes, tramways, conveyors,
and loading bridges constructed by
the company for the largest con-
cerns in the country. A remarkably
effective and handsome publication of
a most important department of en-
p'ineerinsr work.

MANUFACTURING NEWS

Pneumatic Hammers

Ingersoll-Rand Company, New
York. Catalogue of the Imperial
Type "E" pneumatic hammers for
chipping, riveting, calking and simi-
lar work. Various sizes and forms
are illustrated, with tables of di-
mensions and data, together with
duplicate-part lists for use in order-
ing. Some valuable information
upon the right use and care of pneu-
matic tools is appended.

Acetylene Welding

Davis - Bournonytlle Company,
oo West street, New York. Pam-
phlet describing the quick repair
work executed by the oxy-acetylene
apparatus in connection with the ex-
hibitions at the recent M. C. B. and
M. M. conventions ar Atlantic City,
and showing how apparatus intended
for an exhibit was in continual de-
mand for local repairing.

Pumps

De Laval Steam Turbine Com-
pany, Trenton, N. J. Handsomely il-
lustrated Catalogue B, devoted to the
De Laval High Efficiency Centri-
fugal Pumps, and including a tech-
nical discussion of the present status
of the centrifugal pump, its charac-
teristics and applications. Numerous
illustrations are given of various
tvnes of centrifugal pumps, and the
use of the electric motor and the
steam turbine for driving them, to-
gether with data and results of tests,
and descriptions of installation.

Artesian Pumps

Weber Subterranean Pump
Company, 90 West street, New
York. Reprint of article describing
the Weber positive displacement
pump for use with compressed air.

Perforated Metals

Hendrick Manufacturing Co.,
Carbondale, Pa. Handsome cata-
logue illustrating and describing a
great variety of perforated metals
for use in constructing; revolving-

screens for coal, ore, etc. The per-
forated metals are supplied in steel,
galvanized iron, copper, brass and
other materials, and their superiority
over wire cloth for this purpose is
fully set forth. A variety of manu-
factured screens is also shown, to-
gether with elevator buckets, and ma-
terial for conveyor troughs, chutes,
etc. A selection of useful tables re-
lating to sheet metals is appended.

Water Softeners

Dodge Manufacturing Com-
pany, Mishawaka, Indiana. Pam-
phlet entitled "Saving Fuel" and de-
voted to the discussion of the objec-
tions to the use of hard water in
steam boilers and the economy ef-
fected by the prevention of scale at-
tained by the use of a water softener.
The Eureka water softener is illus-
trated and described, and its effect-
iveness in the purification of feed
water attested by numerous users.

Thermit Method of Pipe Welding

An illustrated pamphlet, issued by
the Goldschmidt-Thermit Company
of New York, describes their process
by text and illustration.

Gravity Self-Closing' Fire Doors

Catalogue describing their "Never
Fail" device for the self-closing of
fire doors, very fully illustrated, with
many diagrams showing the working
of their door-closing devices, and a
number of letters from firms using
them, has been received from The
Victor Manufacturing Company of
Newburyport, Mass.

Scientific BooKs.

The Branch Publishing Com-
pany, Chicago. Catalogue of books
on engineering and electricity, es-
pecially adapted for the operating
engineer, and devoted to steam boil-
ers, steam engines, and electric gen-
erators, and suitable for preparation
for examinations and practical engi-
neering' work.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

The Reduction of Expense

EVERY manufacturer is inter-
ested in the vital question of
the cost of his products. The
magnitude of his sales depends
largely upon the lowness of the sell-
ing price, and the selling price can
be kept down only by continual vigi-
lance in watching every detail of
manufacturing cost.

Some of the elements of cost are
inherent in the manufactured article ;
they increase or decrease in direct
proportion to the number of pieces
produced. Such elements are the ma-
terial of which the article is com-
posed ; the piece price which may be
paid to the workman and similar
items ; these can be kept down only
by judicious buying, by the avoid-
ance of wastes and by judicious
agreements with employees.

Other elements of manufacturing
cost are not dependent upon the num-
ber of articles produced, but must be
considered as belonging to the total
output of the establishment. Some
of these are well known under the
name of general expense and include
rent, or interest on cost of plant ; mo-
tive power, depreciation, office ex-
pense, general administration and the
like. They may be distributed as a
percentage of labor cost, as a time
burden, or in some similar manner.
Between these two well considered
elements comes another group, not so
easily distributed, more difficult to
account for and sometimes most diffi-
cult to reduce. This group includes
the operations of handling and in-
volves the movement of the material
through the establishment. The cost
of handling, sometimes excessive,
cannot alwavs be placed where it
really belongs, and its distribution is
sometimes a question for discussion.

There need be no discussion, how-
ever, as to the best method for the
reduction of the cost of handling, it
is the one item which can surely and
effectively be minimized by the sub-
stitution of mechanical appliances for
human effort.

It has been said that "of all in-

ventions, the alphabet and the print-
ing press alone excepted, those in-
ventions which abridge distance have
done most of the civilization of our
species." This is doubtless true of
the steam railway, and in a similar
sense it is true of the industrial rail-
way, the means which enables ma-
terial to be transported with a mini-
mum of time, labor and cost, to any
part of a workshop, regardless of
bulk or weight. The industrial rail-
way is to the manufacturing estab-
lishment what the great trunk line
railroad is to the country through
which it passes. Possessing the same
degree of flexibility, with turn-outs,
curves, switches, turn-tables, cross-
ings, etc., and equipped with cars
adapted fully to the requirements of
the material to be transported, the
industrial railway forms a miniature
system of transportation and a means
for maintaining the circulation as es-
sential to the life of a shop as of a
living being.

The increase in the efficiency of
an establishment by the introduction
of an effective system of transporta-
tion is not measured alone by the
cost of the human labor which it
supersedes. The operations of the
entire shop are accelerated just in
proportion as the movement of raw
material inward and finished products
outward is improved.

It is not usual in shops which are
run in the antiquated methods to find
material waiting to be machined ; the
old plan was for one job to be com-
pleted, for laborers to be sought to
remove it, and for more laborers to
be brought to transport the succeed-
ing piece. The advent of the irn-
dustrial railway changes all this.
Everv machinist knows that his next
job will be at hand as soon as he
can receive it ; the foundry knows
that the castings will be cleared away
and material delivered without de-
lay, and the shipping department and
storerooms are sure of prompt and
effective service. The industrial rail-
way '"tunes" the whole place up.

Paying Investment

Hunt "Industrial" Railway

No. 0994- — Machine Shop and Shipping Department,
Utica Drop Forge and Tool Co , Utica, N. Y.

will reduce the pay roll more
than any other system.

It will increase the output of
works or of factory at the same
expense.

One company installed this system and
their pay roll was reduced $24 per
day and in addition the capacity was
increased.

Simple to install, as an ordinary
workman can lay it down.

TTHE flexibility of the railway makes every corner accessible. The
gauge is 21 1 inches and it can be laid within the standard 4 ft. 8J in.
track, without cutting or notching the rails. Made up in four styles :

Rivetted up track with malleable iron cross ties.

Riveted up steel track.

Knock-down track.

Cast Plate track.

Everything for use with this
system is kept in stock for
immediate delivery. : : : :

If the necessary data is sent, we will
prepare a lay-out without charge and
with the right cars will show where
this saving can be effected.

No . 008. — Standard Cars. We Design Cars to Meet
Any Special Requirements.

C. W. HUNT COMPANY

Established 1872

West New Brighton, New York

New York City, 45 Broadway Richmond, Va., Stale Bank Building Atlanta, Ga., 607 Rhodes Building

Chicago, 1616 Fisher Building San Francisco, 865 Monadnock Building

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Keeping Up the Pace

WHEN, a few years ago, it
was found possible, by the
introduction of improved
steel for cutting tools, to increase
very greatly the speed at which
machinery operations were per-
formed, it was assumed as a mat-
ter of course that great saving in the
time required to produce manufac-
tured articles would be the result.
This, to a certain extent, proved to
be the case, but in many instances
the higher speed of actual cutting
was found to shorten such a small
portion of the entire time as to be
of comparatively little advantage.

High-speed steel, however, apart
from the influence which it has had
upon the speed of cutting metals and
upon the designs and construction of
the machine tools in which it is used,
has acted as a pacemaker for the
entire series of operations, of which
it forms but a single element. The
speeding-up of the line shafting, mo-
tors and general machinery of trans-
mission naturally followed upon the
introduction of higher speeds on the
machines themselves. The reduc-
tion in the time during which a piece
of work remained in the machine ren-
dered it necessary to introduce appli-
ances for bringing material and re-
moving product, while the general
intensification of activity which fol-
lowed these changes led to further
demands for more rapid service.

The term "service" used in this
connection indicates in itself the
transformation which has taken place
in shop methods. Mechanical con-
struction, the realization in metal of
the forms indicated upon working
drawings, means the removal of su-
perfluous material with accuracv, pre-
cision and speed. The men and the
machines by whom this is done are
the real makers of the article. To
them, if they are to maintain the
high pace set for them by modern

methods and made possible by mod-
ern tools, must come such efficient
service that the least possible inter-
ruption can occur.

The efficiency of the work of the
modern machinist forms but one ele-
ment in the total efficiency of the
productive operation, and the final
efficiency is not the sum, but the con-
tinued product of the several effi-
ciencies of the various elements.
This means that if the full advantage
of the high efficiency of modern ma-
chine tools and methods is to be real-
ized, it must be accompanied with
methods and appliances which shall
enable an equally efficient service to
be maintained. It is of small, value
to have an efficiency of 80 per cent,
at the machine and but 30 per cent,
in the service, since it gives a final
efficiency of but 24 per cent, for the
entire operation. If, on the contrary,
we can increase the efficiency of the
service to 80 per cent, we have raised
the final efficiency to 64 per cent., or
more than double the previous figure.

It is the effect which modern cut-
ting tools have had in raising the en-
tire efficiency of a manufacturing es-
tablishment which entitles it to be
called the pacemaker of the machine
shop. In no department has this im-
provement in pace been more notable
than in the appliances for handling
the material, in serving the tools
and in maintaining the flow. The
modern shop contains not only
modern tools, rapid and power-
ful motors and every facility for the
rapid conduct of machinery opera-
tions ; it is also equipped with hoists,
trolleys, cranes and handling machin-
ery of maximum efficiency and con-
venience. The time of a machine
operation to-day includes not only the
time of performing the work but also
the time of putting- it in, of taking it
out. and of bringing up the next
piece, and every moment must be ac-
counted for.

The Service Problem

Triplex Blocks on trolleys and jib-cranes,
serving machine tools.

MODERN ma-
chine tools
wo rk fast.
The difficult problem
is to serve them the
rough work and take
away the finished
work quickly.

Triplex Blocks,
hung from trolleys
and jib-cranes, do all of
that and more. They
not only bring the
work and take it away
quickly, but they save
a lot of time in getting
the work adjusted.

One man alone
can handle twenty
tons, — lift it, lower
it, move it sideways
ten feet or the merest
fraction of an inch.

There is no other way of doing it so quickly, so safely,
so cheaply.

You may have one to try by just asking us or your
nearest dealer.

Chain
Blocks

( 4 Styles : Differential, Duplex, Triplex, Electric.

\ 42 Sizes : One-eighth of a ton to forty tons.

( 300 Active Stocks ready for instant call all over the U. S.

Send for the Book of Hoists today — a postcard brings it.

THE YALE & TOWNE MFG. CO.

Makers of Tale Products

Locks, Padlocks, Builders1 Hardware,
Door Checks and Chain Hoists

Local Offices :

9 Murray Street

Chicago Philadelphia

New York

Boston San Francisco

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Mechanical Differentiation

HE older text-books on me-
chanics included, among vari-
ous arbitrary divisions of the
subject, the classification of the
so-called elementary machines," these
including the lever, screw, wedge,
inclined plane, pulley and wheel-
and-axle. Modern treatises ignore
this time-honored list, or mention
it only to point out that the
wedge and the inclined plane are
practically identical, that the screw is
simply the development of an in-
clined plane upon a cylinder, and that
the wheel-and-axle is but a continu-
ous form of lever.

Probably this continuous lever, the
modern belt pulley, is better entitled
to a place for itself than some other
devices which have been suggested,
for there is hardly a product of hu-
man ingenuity which has so wide an
application and so extensive a series
of users.

In nearly every other system of
mechanical contrivances the element
which receives the effort is wholly
different from that which is at the
sending point. With belt transmis-
sion, however, the energy contained
in the revolving shaft is passed out-
ward through the continuous lever-
age of the arms of the pulley to the
rim. thus increasing the peripheral
velocity many times, and then silently
and imperceptibly converting the ro-
tary movement into the linear ve-
locity of the belt or rope it sends
it flying across space to a similar
pulley, where by a reversal of every
operation the receiving shaft takes it
up. There is probably no simpler
operation in the entire field of me-
chanics, and yet there is not one
which is more useful, more widely
applied, and when properly installed,
more efficient.

It is in just this last feature,
proper installation, that opportunity
comes for the work of the transmis-
sion engineer. A pulley for belt or
rope transmission is not merely a
combination of hub, arms and a rim.
It must have strength to resist belt-

pull, stiffness to resist flexure and
vibration, truth of form and of bal-
ance, and with these essentials there
should be added convenience of in-
stallation.

So far as materials are concerned,
wood, steel, wrought and cast iron,
all have been employed, separately
or in combination. The high coeffi-
cient of friction between the leather
belt and the surface of a wooden rim
has made the use of wood advantage-
ous, either with wooden arms or an
iron spicier, while the lighter weight
of the wooden rim is also desirable
for high speeds, when centrifugal
stresses have to be considered.

Especially desirable for general
factory service is it to have line-shaft
pulleys made in halves, permitting
them to be placed at any desired
point on the shaft without disturb-
ing hangers, couplings or other pul-
leys which may be already in place.

The placing and accurate lining of
shafting, a difficult job in itself, is so
readily disturbed by uncoupling and
replacing a section, that any device
which renders this derangement un-
necessary is to be welcomed. Since
the split pulley, either of wood or of
iron, has become a standardized prod-
uct of manufacture, and especially
since the introduction of split bush-
ings has overcome the difficulty of
fitting shafts of various diameters, it
has been found practicable to install
line shafting upon such a permanent
system as to render any removal of
flange couplings or similar devices
wholly unnecessary.

It might have been supposed that
there was little opportunity for the
improvement of such a simple prod-
uct as an ordinary pulley, an article
which might be sent to the lathe
from the foundry, and on to the cus-
tomer almost without thought. The
event has proved, however, that in
just such a simple article there was
room for skillful design, accurate and
refined construction, and the applica-
tion of inventive talent of a high
order.

There Are Dodge Pulleys
For Every Service

DODGE" Standard "
Split Iron Pulley.
Non-flexible, and has no
riveted joints. Carried in
stock with interchangeable
bushings. Bulletin C - 128.

DODGE
Wood

Iron Spider
Rim Pulley.
Bulletin C-18 describes
how we safely tested this
type of pulley to a rim speed
of "5* Miles Per Minute."

HODGE "Indepen-
-Ly dence" Wood Split
Pulley. For 28 years the
standard for regular
work. Carried in stock
everywhere. Bulletin C-77.

We also make regular iron
pulleys, flywheels and large
special wheels of all kinds.
Bulletin C-61 describes our fac-
tory facilities and Bulletin
C-123 is on "Safe Construc-
tion and Speeds for Flywheels."

DODGE Pulleys are profitable pulleys to buy. They are made to give long, efficient service ^
and to do hard work. Please get the bulletins mentioned above. They explain *
the difference between Dodge Pulleys and — just pulleys. The difference ^ <&
between profit and loss in your pulley investment. ^ .J&*

Send a letter or the coupon with 25 cents and we will send you -a Dodge Vest

sy>

— — — -- — — r — — _j — — — — .... ..-_ — j — _ 0 *&j* «.

Pocket Slide Rule Calculator, in leather case, for pulleys, belting, friction . ^^i* <£>

clutches and shafting. Also bulletins on pulleys. Money back if the Sk?^ -<$■ %
calculator isn't a great time and figure saver. ^ ^.^ ^^

================= >* oOS' V* N ^

c*"

Dodge Manufacturing Co.

STATION I-ll, MISHAWAKA, INDIANA
"Everything for the Mechanical Transmission of Power"

New York
St. Lou

ork Cincinnati Philadelphia Atlanta Pittsburg /-O^ \<$^<fi <v* ■■'' vo^ <>."-'''

is Brooklyn Minneapolis Boston Chicago y 0° ^^o^ <^ xv<^' o* *<y <^'
Agencies in most other cities V "V ""> X \ <\ <~>

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.
59

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Electric Air a Pneumatic Invention

THERE is at least one curious
thing about the development
of the electric air channeler,
and, in fact of the electric air drill
also, in that while the invention as
completed and applied is quite revo-
lutionary in its character, and has
made the employment of electricity
for all kinds of rock-cutting not only
possible but highly economical and
desirable, there is in the device no
improvement of or addition to exist-
ing electric apparatus, and we might
say, no electric invention is involved.

The electric motor is used in this
case with thankfulness for the exist-
ence and availability of it, but with
no thanks to electric invention for
developing its so successful applica-
tion in this field. This is not the
first instance, nor perhaps the largest
field, in which pneumatic apparatus
has provided employment for electri-
city as the ultimate motive force.
The electric air drill with the electric
air channeler now make it possible
to employ the electric current as the
sole means of power transmission for
mine or quarry, and to dispense en-
tirely with large air compressor
plants and long pipe lines

It is rare indeed that new inven-
tions develop great advantages and
economies without entailing also some
partially offsetting objectionable fea-
tures, and the absence of the latter
in the case of the electric air drill
has been widely commented on. In
fact no sacrifice or even compromise
of any desirable working feature has
followed, while the saving in power
alone is indisputably demonstrated to
range up to 60 and 70 per cent, at
the power house.

The same characteristics of con-
venience and economy are empha-
sized and extended in the applica-
tion of the electric air principle to
the rock channeler. The machine as
a whole is much simplified as com-
pared with the steam channeler, or
even the air actuated channeler of
the older types. Instead of the mo-
tor and pulsator separate from the

percussion mechanism and requir-
ing to be separately handled with
every change of location, these do
not require to be moved or looked
after at all, being securely and per-
manently fastened upon the base of
the machine and by their weight con-
tributing to its balance and stability.
Instead of the two pulsator cylinders
with the two cranks to operate them
for the electric air drill, there is but
one pulsator cylinder and a single
crank on the channeler. The one
motor serves not only to operate the
channeling steels, but also to feed
the machine along the track in either
direction, and the wires which are
the only power connection permit a
longer working travel than is ever re-
quired in practice. The flexible hose
connecting, at each end of each, the
pulsator with the channeling cylinder
in no way interfere with or limit the
possible angular adjustments, so that
the channeler is used not only for
cuts vertical or nearly so, but also
for undercutting at angles approach-
ing the horizontal. The perfect and
constant lubrication of the machine
was never so well provided for. The
same air being used over and over,
the oil is not carried away by the
exhaust, as there is none, but re-
mains in the machine, and in fact
may be considered a part of it to per-
form its function the same as the
piston, the connecting rod or any
other essential mechanical member.

The saving of power by the em-
ployment of the electric air prin-
ciple in drill or channeler is so ac-
knowledged and so familiar as to re-
quire no mention or explanation.
Perhaps the habit of time saving,
which also may be claimed for the
devices, should be more insisted upon.
There is no fixed speed for the or-
dinary air or steam operated rock
drill. It works slower and faster,
and when the bit sticks there is noth-
ing doing until the operator does
something to free it. The electric air
drill or channeler goes along with the
rhythm of a military march.

INGERSOLL-RAND CO.

NEW YORK CHICAGO

"ELECTRIC-AIR" CHANNELERS

We have just issued a new
pamphlet, No. 6102, on the
"Electric- Air" Channeler,
which will tell you much
more about it than we can
attempt here.
We want your name, so we
can send it to you. Here
we will merely emphasize
a few points:
Economy — With the "Elec-
tric-Air" Channeler you
will get all the capacity of
the standard steam or air
channeler, with a saving of atjeast half the power.
Capacity — Its blow is of a tremendously effective quality, and great

penetrating effect.
Simplicity — No machine approaching it in its capabilities has so little

about it to get out of order or cause trouble.
Endurance — This remarkable simplicity, together with the heavy con-
struction, makes repairs a very small item on this machine.
Adjustability — There is a remarkable flexibility to this channeler,

adapting it to a wide variety of operating conditions.
Here you have in the "Electric-Air" Channeler, every good feature

you ever heard of and some exclusive advantages as well.
A few of these machines, supplemented by an equipment of "Electric-
Air" Drills, will enable you to have an "electric" quarry through-
out, without sacrificing the advantages which you associate with the
use of compressed air. For both of these devices are air machines,
driven by an electric motor.

Products :

AIR COMPRESSORS
ROCK DRILLS
HAMMER DRILLS
ELECTRIC-AIR DRILLS
CORE DRILLS
COAL CUTTERS
CHANNELERS
PNEUMATIC TOOLS
PNEUMATIC HOISTS
PNEUMATIC PUMPS

DOMESTIC OFFICES:
Birmingham El Paso

Boston

Butte

Chicago

Cleveland

Denver

Duluth

Philadelphia
Pittsburg
St. Louis
Salt Lake
San Francisco
Seattle

FOREIGN OFFICES!

Budapest

Dusseldorf

Johannesburg

Kobe

Melbourne

Mexico

Montreal

Paris

Valparaiso

Yokohama

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Through the Air

EVERYBODY is interested in
aerial navigation at the pres-
ent time, and no one 'may ven-
ture to predict what to-morrow may
bring forth. For to-day, at least,
the flying machine is a little more
than an object of interest, it is be-
ginning to be an object for com-
parison with tried and successful me-
chanical appliances.

The railroad requires a right-of-
way and a permanent way as well.
The owner of the automobile will
never be satisfied until he gets "good
roads" over the length and width of
the land. The aviator, however, finds
his right-of-way open to him, at
least until legislation finds some ef-
fective method of closing it, and it
is only when he has to descend to
the surface of the earth that he must
choose his path with care. He has,
however, one difficulty to contend
with, a difficulty not easily overcome,
the opposition of adverse winds and
strenuous weather conditions. His
path is open unless a stronger than
he desires to occupy it. The wise
aviator stays safely upon the sur-
face of the earth when the weather is
unfavorable, while the navigators of
the giant dirigibles know too well
what the cost of unruly winds has
been to them.

Under such conditions, even though
the channel has been crossed and re-
crossed, and though the frail aero-
plane has carried two, three or four
passengers for brief distances at high
speeds, its availability as a means for
the commercial transport of material
and merchandise still seems remote.

There is, however, and has been
for years in successful use, a method
of transport through the air, using a
simple and effective system, wholly
independent of all kinds of weather.
The aerial tramway requires indeed
its own line to be constructed be-
tween the points it is to serve, but
this line, carried through the air, may
pass above trees, buildings, fields or

rivers ; it may traverse rough ground
and reach points inaccessible to any
surface method of transport.

The freedom from surface ob-
structions forms an essential element
in the effective transport of material
between given points. Already the
advantages of operating in three di-
mensions have been discussed in con-
nection with aerial navigation, but in
practically all commercial applications'
it is essential to come to earth at the
points of reception and delivery.
The aerial tramway does this with
positive certainty, and thus adds to
the freedom of the air the reliability
of the railway. By its use industrial
developments have been made pos-
sible which would otherwise prove
commercially impracticable solely be-
cause of transportation difficulties.
From the mine to the railway, from
the station to the factory, across sur-
face obstacles of all kinds the aerial
route has shown itself open.

The applications of devices of this
sort have demonstrated the demand
for effective means of taking care of
the gap which so often exists at the
ends of otherwise efficient transporta-
tion lines. The great railway can re-
ceive merchandise at one terminal
and deliver it at another, but the ter-
minal of the railroad is not the ter-
minal of the customer, and there is
often a wearisome, tedious and costly
haul from the station to the shop.
Even when a private railroad siding
is available, the question of final
handling of material or of merchan-
dise is often a serious one. When,
however, it is practicable to install
between the terminal of the railway
or the siding by the factory a rail-
way through the air to the real ter-
minal of the user, one of the wide
gaps in the completion of efficient
transport service is bridged, and a
considerable saving both in time and
money effected, which is one reason
why the aerial tramway is being used
more largely each year.

TMM

-ojrAmiAL TRAMM

You may fly

if you
know
how to
handle an
aeroplane
and the
weather
conditions
are right

IF you wish to transport your goods safely and economically in all
kinds of weather, you may do it with a Bleichert Aerial Tramway,
like the above, which is from a snapshot photograph of such a line at
the works of The Trenton Iron Company, taken at the moment when
Mr. Chas. K. Hamilton was passing over Hamilton Avenue on the return
trip of his famous aeroplane flight between New York and Philadelphia,
June 13th.

Profusely illustrated book on Aerial Tramways of value to
persons interested in Economical Methods of Transporting
Materials Free on Request.

\i HIM WEM.^nUimM'MMi^mmM^ • vL-avi ?k-\y

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.
63

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Trade Catalogues

THE modern trade catalogue is
an interesting example of the
art of the engraver and
printer, and it is also, in many cases,
the latest and best text-book upon its
special subject.

Formerly the manufacturer of a
special device or standard machine
either depended wholly upon cor-
respondence and the oral representa-
tions of salesmen, or else issued some
kind of printed matter, with crude il-
lustrations and text which consisted
of glittering generalities or extrava-
gant praise, while conveying but little
real information to the customer.

To-day the trade catalogue is a
product of the best ability which can
be secured in all the various depart-
ments of the work. The illustrations
are made from actual photographs or
from special drawings, and are as
accurate and explanatory as it is pos-
sible to make them. The text is pre-
pared both for the needs of the sales-
man and for the instruction of the
user, and it is the work of engineer-
ing specialists who have learned the
art of expressing themselves in clear
and precise language.

Not only is the particular device
under consideration thus given full
and detailed publicity ; the whole state
of the art is often discussed, some-
times with the result of furnishing a
more effective engineering treatise
than can be purchased from any tech-
nical publisher.

In some cases elaborate scientific
tests are conducted at great expense,
solely for the purpose of providing
data which shall be wholly reliable
and enable the facts to be set forth
in the catalogue to the best ad-
vantage and with undoubted authori-
ty. Such tests are frequently made,
not by the engineers of the manu-
facturing concern, however high
their standing, but by eminent pro-
fessional men whose freedom from
bias is assured.

Information gathered in this man-
ner is then edited as carefully as the
pages of any high-class technical
publication, while the material for

the illustrations is placed in the
hands of engravers who are experi-
enced in this special department of
work, and who realize the im-
portance both of accuracy and of ef-
fect. Paper, presswork and binding
are given similar care and attention
and the finished product is, as al-
ready said, a high-class treatise upon
an engineering specialty.

Under such circumstances it is evi-
dent that the product which is
placed before the purchasing public
with such effort and expense must
itself be produced with equal atten-
tion. The high-class catalogue is not
employed to draw attention to infer-
ior goods, and if it were so used it
would defeat its own ends. The
full story must be told, and if it does
not reveal excellence of design and
manufacture the fact will be only
too evident. Fulsome praise will not
replace fulness of description ; gen-
eral statements only serve to show
the lack of detailed information.

Such being the case, it would seem
as if the great advance which has
been made in trade catalogues during
the past decade indicates a cor-
responding development of the pro-
ducts themselves; and this is, to a
great extent, true. Better designs,
the result of the work of trained en-
gineers ; better and more accurate
work, the result of improved tools,
methods and systems ; better mate-
rials, following closely the marvel-
ous developments in metallurgy and
investigation : these have all united
to improve the product which is so
effectively and accurately displayed
in the modern catalogue.

The value of the trade catalogue is
largely measured by the desire of
modern engineers and manufacturers
to secure them. When, after such a
period of work expenditure and dis-
play, the new edition of the cata-
logue of a prominent house appears,
there follows immediately a demand
from all sides for copies of the de-
sirable book. Announced in the
technical press, distributed freely and
widely, it acts at once to educate and
sell ; it is an investment which pays.

THIS new Catalogue will show you
the way to Increase Production.

If you want to learn how to secure flexibility in your power transmission
— if you want to know how to use only part of your power equipment
for overtime or short time — if you want to find how repairs can be
made on your transmission apparatus during working hours —

SECURE THIS CATALOGUE

HILL

(SMITH TYPE)

FRICTION
CLUTCH

Pulleys and Couplings are
designed and constructed for
the most severe service.

theJ{ill(lut(;h<;o

CLEVELAND, OHIO

In writing to advertisers, please mention CASSIER'S MAGAZINE.

CASSIER'S MAGAZINE

Concrete Construction

WITH the increasing extent to
which concrete has re-
placed timber and stone for
building construction, there has come
a number of problems, demanding
effective and practical solution in
ways which previously did not ap-
pear. Some of these questions have
been met very effectively ; others are
yet in course of development.

The preparation of the concrete it-
self has led to the production of ma-
chines for the rapid, economical and
complete mixing of the cement, sand
and stone, and the result is the great
improvement in concrete construction
by reason of the more uniform
quality of the product and the lower
cost in time and money which has
followed.

Various developments in the design
and construction of moulds for form-
ing and retaining the mixture until
it has become fully set have aided
in the extending- use of concrete as
a structural material.

So far as questions relating to
reinforcement, by the use of bars of
imbedded steel, are concerned, these
have been given attention by skilled
engineers, with the result that the
proper position and dimensions of the
reinforcements are well understood,
and there is little or no occasion for
the errors and defects which natur-
ally accompanied the early efforts
with a comparatively untried ma-
terial. There is one feature, however,
which is only beginning to receive
the attention which it demands, the
question of rendering the mass of
concrete wholly and effectively water-
proof. While the structure of con-
crete, when fully completed, re-
sembles a solid mass of natural stone,
it must be remembered that it can-
not, in its original condition, be as-
sumed to be impervious to moisture.
There are few stones found in Na-
ture which are not penetrated by
water, and, in fact, the purity of
spring water often arises from the
fact that it has been filtered through
natural lavers of rock and similar

material. When, therefore, the ar-
tificial stone which a hardened mass
of concrete really becomes, is ex-
posed to the influence of moisture, it
is only natural to expect that it will
behave in a similar manner to the
material from which it is composed.

Two methods may be considered in
the imparting to concrete of the
property of resisting moisture ; there
may be an external coating of some
waterproofing material applied to the
surface of the finished work; or ad-
vantage may be taken of the access
to the interior of the mass which is
given during construction, and the
waterproofing substance incorporated
with the elements of the concrete.
Each method has its appropriate ap-
plications, and both are capable of
extensive uses. The essential point
is that the question of waterproofing
should be taken up while the struc-
ture is in progress, or, at least, be-
fore it is so covered and trimmed
that access to all parts has become
impracticable. Like all other ques-
tions connected with the successful
use of concrete, the subject of water-
proofing should be entrusted to spe-
cialists who have studied the best
methods and know the results which
may be obtained under given condi-
tions.

The importance of proper and
complete waterproofing can hardly be
overrated. For residences, freedom
from dampness is essential to health
and comfort, and a damp concrete
house is a structure which, in the
light of present knowledge, has no
right to exist. For buildings in
which perishable materials, such as
grain and other foodstuffs or any
material affected by damp, are stored,
effective waterproofing is a condition
which must be positively assured or
the work will be a failure.

In the light of present knowledge,
there is no reason why the problem
of the prevention of dampness in
concrete structures may not be con-
sidered as wholly solved, and the only
necessity lies in its full consideration
at the proper moment.

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